Childhood Executive Function Continues to Predict Outcomes in Young Adult Females with and Without Childhood-Diagnosed ADHD

Abstract

We prospectively followed an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of preadolescent girls with ADHD (n=140) and matched comparison girls (n=88) over a period of 10 years, from middle childhood through late adolescence/young adulthood. Our aim was to examine the ability of childhood measures of executive function (EF) to predict functional outcomes at follow-up. Measures of EF comprised the childhood predictors, with academic, socioemotional, occupational, and global functioning serving as young adult criterion measures. Results indicated that childhood EF – particularly measures of global EF and working memory – predicted academic and occupational functioning across our entire sample (independent of diagnostic group status), but diagnostic status (ADHD versus comparison) moderated the association between (a) working memory and reading achievement and (b) a global EF measure and suspensions/expulsions. That is, in the ADHD group, low working memory predicted poor reading scores and impaired global EF predicted higher suspensions/expulsions, but this was not the case in the comparison group. Overall, these results extend previous findings of associations between EF and adolescent outcomes in girls with and without ADHD into young adulthood. Findings continue to suggest the importance of assessing and developing interventions that target EF impairments early in life in order to prevent long-term difficulties across a range of important functional domains.

School exclusion in children with psychiatric disorder or impairing psychopathology: a systematic review

“…After screening and citation chasing five studies met all the inclusion criteria (Christian and Frick 1997, Meyer et al 1993, Reinke et al 2008, Rohde et al 1999, Rushton, Forcier, and Schectman 2002, two were included through hand searches (Bauermeister et al 2007, Miller, NevadoMontenegro, andHinshaw 2011), two were identified through experts in the field (Barkley et al 1991, Norwich, Cooper, andMaras 2002).…”

“…The total number of children in the included studies was 20,844. One study only included girls (Miller, Nevado-Montenegro, and Hinshaw 2011). Three of the studies focussed on children aged between 4-17 years old (Bauermeister et al 2007, Christian and Frick 1997, Miller, Nevado-Montenegro, and Hinshaw 2011, others reported on adolescents between 11-17 years (Meyer et al 1993, Rohde et al 1999, Rushton, Forcier, and Schectman 2002, Barkley et al 1991, Norwich, Cooper, and Maras 2002 and one was restricted to children aged 6-7 years (Reinke et al 2008).…”

“…In addition, we contacted experts in the field and searched bibliographies of key identified papers and further information from the authors was requested for clarification (Bauermeister et al 2007, Christian and Frick 1997, Meyer et al 1993, Miller, Nevado-Montenegro, and Hinshaw 2011, Rushton, Forcier, and Schectman 2002, Barkley et al 1991.…”

“…It was also unclear exactly when the expulsion or suspension occurred and/or for how long. Six studies reported on suspension or expulsion that had occurred prior to the assessment of psychopathology (Bauermeister et al 2007, Christian and Frick 1997, Meyer et al 1993, Rohde et al 1999, Rushton, Forcier, and Schectman 2002, Norwich, Cooper, and Maras 2002 and two studies reported prospectively with an assessment of psychopathology at baseline and measured exclusion between baseline to follow up (Miller, Nevado-Montenegro, andHinshaw 2011, Reinke et al 2008). The remaining study was unclear in reporting when the suspension or expulsion occurred in relation to the diagnosis (Barkley et al 1991).…”

Trauma-Exposed Infants and Toddlers: A Review of Impacts and Evidence-Based Interventions

“…Compared to older children who have been maltreated, trauma-exposed children ages zero to two years are at greater risk for developing internalizing symptoms (Kaplow & Widom, 2007) and have difficulties with inhibitory control and working memory (Cicchetti, Cowell, Rogosch, & Toth, 2015). In addition, children who experience early adversity, such as abuse and neglect, are at greater risk than their non-maltreated peers for impaired executive functioning (DePrince, Weinzierl, & Combs, 2009), a set of skills that predicts kindergarten school readiness (Fitzpatrick, McKinnon, Blair, & Willoughby, 2014) as well as adult academic and job outcomes (Miller, Nevado-Montenegro, & Hinshaw, 2012). Large-scale epidemiological studies such as the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study have analyzed the prevalence and effects of early childhood traumatic experiences in over 17,000 adults and have found relationships between early adverse childhood experiences and the prevalence of a number of adverse adult physical health outcomes (Dong, Anda, Dube, Giles, & Felitti, 2003).…”