Child Exposure to Lead in the Vicinities of Informal Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling Operations in Nairobi Slums, Kenya

Abstract

Background.Child exposure to lead from informal used lead-acid battery (ULAB) recycling operations is a serious environmental health problem, particularly in developing countries.Objectives.We investigated child exposure to lead in the vicinities of ULAB recycling operations in the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums in Nairobi between January and August 2015.Methods.Top soil (n = 232) and floor dust (n = 322) samples were collected from dwelling units (n = 120) and preparatory schools (n = 44) and analyzed using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer at the Mines and Geological Department Laboratory in the Ministry of Mining, Nairobi. From the obtained lead levels in soil and house dust, child blood lead levels were subsequently predicted using the Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic Model for Lead in Children (IEUBK), Windows version.Results.Lead loadings in all the floor dust samples from the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidance value for lead on floors with a range of 65.2 – 58,194 μg/ft2. Control floor dust samples recorded lower lead loadings compared to the Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru slums. Lead concentration in 70.7% of the soil samples collected from waste dumps, industrial sites, residential areas, playgrounds and preparatory schools in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru exceeded the respective USEPA guidance values for lead in soils. Lead concentration in 100% of control soil samples were below the respective USEPA limits. The IEUBK model predicted that nearly 99.9% of children ≤ 7 years old living near informal ULAB recycling operations in Dandora, Kariobangi and Mukuru were at risk of being lead poisoned, with predicted blood lead levels (BLL) above the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reference value for blood lead. A total of 99.9% of exposed children living in the Mukuru slums are likely to have BLL above 34 μg/dL.Conclusions.There is a need for coordinated efforts to decrease lead emissions from informal battery recycling in Nairobi slums and to remediate existing soils, particularly around battery workplaces and dumpsites. The BLL of local children should be clinically tested and appropriate intervention measures taken.

Environmental Assessment and Blood Lead Levels of Children in Owino Uhuru and Bangladesh Settlements in Kenya

“…22 Although we did not test for cognitive and behavioral problems related to lead poisoning, the clinical symptoms, such as abdominal pains reported by some of the children were non-specific to lead poisoning. 24 …”

“…The researchers predicted that almost all of the children living in the slums would have BLLs above 34 μg/dL. 24 A review of nine studies measuring blood lead levels and point source exposures suggests that soil less than 270 meters from a point source, such as a lead smelter, is more likely to be heavily contaminated compared to soil further distant from the source. 25–33 …”

Using citizen science to assess cumulative risk from air and other pollution sources in informal settlements

“…Airborne sources of metals in soils include all solid particles in smoke from fires including burning of waste, and in other emissions from factory chimneys which according to Smith et al (1995) are eventually deposited on land; most forms of fossil fuels contain some heavy metals, and this is, therefore, a form of contamination which is in large scale since the industrial revolution began. Previous studies in informal settlements in Nairobi including Mukuru found high concentrations of Pb, with children exposed to levels beyond the USEPA limits (Ondayo et. Al., 2016).…”

“…The findings from the studies on waste management, air pollution and soil contamination, validated previous studies that highlighted the environmental threats to health and well-being among residents in Mukuru arising from both indoor and outdoor air pollution (West et. al., 2020;Dianati, et al, 2019;Muindi et al, 2014), soil contamination (Ondayo et. al., 2016), water pollution, and lack of sanitation and hygiene (University of California Berkeley: UCB, 2018).…”

Bioremediation Potential of Soil Lead (Pb) Tolerant Fungi isolated from Owino Uhuru, a Suburb of Mombasa County, Kenya

“…Nairobi also recorded high levels of Pb in the blood samples of children from an informal settlement that carried out Pb acid recycling operations (Ondayo et al, 2016). In Mombasa, Owino Uhuru slums have recorded the highest level of Pb pollution emanating from the Metal Refinery EPZ that manually processed Pb metal from used car batteries (Benards and Abraham, 2012).…”