Child and Adolescent Depression: A Review of Theories, Evaluation Instruments, Prevention Programs, and Treatments

Abstract

Depression is the principal cause of illness and disability in the world. Studies charting the prevalence of depression among children and adolescents report high percentages of youngsters in both groups with depressive symptoms. This review analyzes the construct and explanatory theories of depression and offers a succinct overview of the main evaluation instruments used to measure this disorder in children and adolescents, as well as the prevention programs developed for the school environment and the different types of clinical treatment provided. The analysis reveals that in mental classifications, the child depression construct is no different from the adult one, and that multiple explanatory theories must be taken into account in order to arrive at a full understanding of depression. Consequently, both treatment and prevention should also be multifactorial in nature. Although universal programs may be more appropriate due to their broad scope of application, the results are inconclusive and fail to demonstrate any solid long-term efficacy. In conclusion, we can state that: (1) There are biological factors (such as tryptophan—a building block for serotonin-depletion, for example) which strongly influence the appearance of depressive disorders; (2) Currently, negative interpersonal relations and relations with one's environment, coupled with social-cultural changes, may explain the increase observed in the prevalence of depression; (3) Many instruments can be used to evaluate depression, but it is necessary to continue to adapt tests for diagnosing the condition at an early age; (4) Prevention programs should be developed for and implemented at an early age; and (5) The majority of treatments are becoming increasingly rigorous and effective. Given that initial manifestations of depression may occur from a very early age, further and more in-depth research is required into the biological, psychological and social factors that, in an interrelated manner, may explain the appearance, development, and treatment of depression.

Applying network analysis to understand depression and substance use in Indian adolescents

“…Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to developing mental health problems, and the majority of mental health problems develop during adolescence (Patel, Flisher, Hetrick, & McGorry, 2007). Depression in adolescence is associated with several factors including hormonal and neurobiological changes, negative family relationships, and bullying from peers (Bernaras, Jaureguizar, & Garaigordobil, 2019;Storr, Pacek, & Martins, 2012;Thapar, Collishaw, Pine, & Thapar, 2012). Substance use is typically initiated during adolescence (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2012) and has been shown to be prevalent in adolescents across multiple countries (Mutumba & Schulenberg, 2019).…”

Psychological and Sleep Effects of Tryptophan and Magnesium-Enriched Mediterranean Diet in Women with Fibromyalgia

“…Recent studies made in healthy middle-aged women revealed that a daily consumption of a low-dose supplement containing bioavailable tryptophan may have beneficial effects on emotional and cognitive functions [10]. It is known that there are biological factors (such as tryptophan-a building block of serotonin-depletion) which strongly influence the appearance of depressive disorders [45]. Tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (TPH-2) gene may play an important role in maintaining the normal level of serotonin in the central nervous system [46,47], and, as suggested by Ping et al (2019) [17], neurotransmission by serotonin in the brain may be associated with changes in white matter integrity in patients with major depressive disorder.…”

Depression in Alzheimer’s Disease: The Roles of Cholinergic and Serotonergic Systems

“…According to the fifth edition of DSM, depressive disorders are categorized as major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, disruptive mood disorder, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, substance or drug related depressive disorder, depressive disorder due to a medical condition, and otherwise undifferentiated depressive disorder (5). With the system of ICD, the most commonly diagnosed depressive disorders are single depressive episode, recurrent depressive disorders, and persistent mood disorders (6). Depression is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder among general population (7).…”

“…Depression is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder among general population (7). The patients with depression often have low self-esteem, suffer overwhelming unwillingness, and are afflicted by attention and concentration deficits which result in cognitive impairments (6,8). Depression may exceed being an affective problem and lead to physical abnormalities.…”

“…Depression may exceed being an affective problem and lead to physical abnormalities. It can coincide with and aggravate existing physical pathologies (2,6,8). On the other side, chronic diseases can also generate depressive disorders (2,9,10).…”