Chemistry of Aqueous Chlorine

doi:10.1002/9780470561331.ch2

Cited by 4 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 92 publications

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“…However, negative correlation was found between the log count reduction (of ACC and coliforms) and water temperature (Barrera et al., 2012). The concentration of the most active form of chlorine in water, hypochlorous acid, highly depends on the temperature (Randtke, 2010).…”

Section: Assessmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Microbiological hazards associated with the use of water in the post‐harvest handling and processing operations of fresh and frozen fruits, vegetables and herbs (ffFVHs). Part 1 (outbreak data analysis, literature review and stakeholder questionnaire)

Koutsoumanis,

Ordóñez,

Bolton

et al. 2023

EFS2

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Section: Assessmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Microbiological hazards associated with the use of water in the post‐harvest handling and processing operations of fresh and frozen fruits, vegetables and herbs (ffFVHs). Part 1 (outbreak data analysis, literature review and stakeholder questionnaire)

Koutsoumanis,

Ordóñez,

Bolton

et al. 2023

EFS2

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“…The theoretical molar chlorine to ammonia ratio (Cl 2 /N) needed to reach the breakpoint is 1.5 and N 2 forms as the sole product () . However, nitrate is also produced in breakpoint reactions and the yields of nitrate vary with pH (1.5–10% at pH 5–10), such that the Cl 2 /N molar ratio needed to reach the breakpoint typically ranges from 1.6 to 1.8 3 normalH normalO normalC normall + 2 normalN normalH 4 + → normalN 2 + 3 normalC normall − + 5 normalH + + 3 normalH 2 normalO …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The reactions involved in breakpoint chlorination result in free chlorine transforming ammonia into final products, such as N 2 , N 2 O, and nitrate, via pathways associated with the formation and decomposition of inorganic chloramines. The theoretical molar chlorine to ammonia ratio (Cl 2 /N) needed to reach the breakpoint is 1.5 and N 2 forms as the sole product () . However, nitrate is also produced in breakpoint reactions and the yields of nitrate vary with pH (1.5–10% at pH 5–10), such that the Cl 2 /N molar ratio needed to reach the breakpoint typically ranges from 1.6 to 1.8 …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Critical Role of Trichloramine Interaction with Dichloramine for N-Nitrosamine Formation during Breakpoint Chlorination

Chuang,

Chen,

Chou

et al. 2023

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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Breakpoint chlorination is prevalent in drinking water and potable reuse water treatment. Breakpoint chlorination enhances the formation of N-nitrosamines through reactions that form nitrosating agents. The most recent study suggests that nitroxyl (HNO) can react with free chlorine (HOCl) to form the nitrosyl chloride (ClNO) nitrosating agent but has not experimentally verified its importance in breakpoint chlorination. This study first assessed the formation of N-nitrosamines from model N-chloro-alkylamine precursors when they were added to a mixture of HOCl and HNO-derived nitrosating agents generated by chlorinating hydroxyurea. Results demonstrated negligible N-nitrosamine formation. Instead, we observed that the interaction of NCl3 with NHCl2 (total Cl2/total N molar ratio = 2.4–3:1) produced an intermediate capable of nitrosating N-chloro-alkylamines to N-nitrosamines at yields 8-fold higher to those observed in NHCl2 treatment alone, within a very short timescale (<3 min). We examined the stoichiometry of the reaction of NCl3 with NHCl2 using a UV-spectrum-based approach. Nitrosyl chloride was proposed as the key intermediate, likely formed alongside the reformation of NHCl2. Further isotopic experiments, byproduct measurements, and kinetic modeling supported the hypotheses. Modeling indicated that the reaction of NCl3 with NHCl2 explained ∼75% of NDMA formation during breakpoint chlorination. Because NCl3 is mainly derived from the reaction of HOCl with NHCl2, controlling NHCl2 (e.g., with additional treatment) is critical for minimizing nitrosamine formation in waters where breakpoint chlorination occurs.

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“…The combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, boilers, and diesel engines are known to generate large amounts of air pollutants in the form of sulfur oxides (SO x ) and nitrogen oxides (NO x ), among other polluting substances. Control of these pollutants are particularly more challenging in the marine sector where ocean-plying ships with large diesel engines depend on lowcost heavy fuel oil for propulsion (Deng et al 2021;Marine 2015). The application of known land-based end-of-pipe technologies onboard ocean-plying vessels faces many constraints, including space, weight, and logistical limitations.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Therefore, engine medication techniques are mainly used to reduce the combustion temperature in the engine so that less NO x will be formed. However, such methods also reduce the engine efficiency, thereby leading to higher fuel consumption (Deng et al 2021).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comparison of various chemical compounds for the removal of SO2 and NOx with wet scrubbing for marine diesel engines

Chin

Tam

Yin

2021

Environ Sci Pollut Res

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Seawater, NaOH, NaClO, NaClO2, H2O2, and KMnO4 were used as scrubbing liquids to react with SOx and NOx separately in a customized wet scrubber. The absorption of SO2 in the aqueous phase was influenced by three factors: pH, ionic concentration, and oxidation potential. For NOx removal, the effectiveness of various chemical compounds can be ranked from least to most effective as follows: seawater, NaOH, H2O2 < NaClO < KMnO4 < NaClO2. This effectiveness was influenced by the chemical compound’s ability to oxidize NO to NO2, absorb the NO2 that was formed, and retaining the nitrogen in the aqueous phase. High oxidation potential promoted the oxidation of NO to NO2 but hindered the absorption of NO2. NaClO2 was superior compared to NaClO in all three categories of oxidizing, absorption and retention. NaClO could not retain a significant amount of NO2 which it absorbed in the aqueous phase. The pH around 8 provided a good balance between oxidation versus absorption/retention and reactant utilization for the chlorine-based oxidants. KMnO4 had the lowest reactant consumption rate; only half a mole was consumed for every mole of NO removed, compared to around 2–3 mol of chlorite or 3–5 mol of hypochlorite.

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Chemistry of Aqueous Chlorine

Cited by 4 publications

References 92 publications

Microbiological hazards associated with the use of water in the post‐harvest handling and processing operations of fresh and frozen fruits, vegetables and herbs (ffFVHs). Part 1 (outbreak data analysis, literature review and stakeholder questionnaire)

Microbiological hazards associated with the use of water in the post‐harvest handling and processing operations of fresh and frozen fruits, vegetables and herbs (ffFVHs). Part 1 (outbreak data analysis, literature review and stakeholder questionnaire)

Critical Role of Trichloramine Interaction with Dichloramine for N-Nitrosamine Formation during Breakpoint Chlorination

Comparison of various chemical compounds for the removal of SO2 and NOx with wet scrubbing for marine diesel engines

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