Chemistry and Toxicology of Major Bioactive Substances in Inocybe Mushrooms

Abstract

Mushroom poisoning has always been a threat to human health. There are a large number of reports about ingestion of poisonous mushrooms every year around the world. It attracts the attention of researchers, especially in the aspects of toxin composition, toxic mechanism and toxin application in poisonous mushroom. Inocybe is a large genus of mushrooms and contains toxic substances including muscarine, psilocybin, psilocin, aeruginascin, lectins and baeocystin. In order to prevent and remedy mushroom poisoning, it is significant to clarify the toxic effects and mechanisms of these bioactive substances. In this review article, we summarize the chemistry, most known toxic effects and mechanisms of major toxic substances in Inocybe mushrooms, especially muscarine, psilocybin and psilocin. Their available toxicity data (different species, different administration routes) published formerly are also summarized. In addition, the treatment and medical application of these toxic substances in Inocybe mushrooms are also discussed. We hope that this review will help understanding of the chemistry and toxicology of Inocybe mushrooms as well as the potential clinical application of its bioactive substances to benefit human beings.

The phosphate ester group in secondary metabolites

“…11). 90,91 Psylocibin ( 54 ) is dephosphorylated by alkaline phosphatases to produce psilocin ( 55 ), the psychotropic principle, which is then converted to the corresponding O -glucuronide, the main urinary metabolite. 92…”

A New Muscarine-Containing Inosperma (Inocybaceae, Agaricales) Species Discovered From One Poisoning Incident Occurring in Tropical China

“…The species diversity of Inocybaceae was documented by a series of studies in China (Fan and Bau, 2010 , 2013 , 2014a , b , 2016 , 2017 , 2018 , 2020 ; Bau and Fan, 2018 ; Fan et al, 2018 ; Yu et al, 2020 ; Deng et al, 2021a , b ; Li et al, 2021b ). Inosperma genus only includes a few toxic species, but a high level of muscarine was frequently detected (Kosentka et al, 2013 ; Sailatha et al, 2014 ; Latha et al, 2020 ; Deng et al, 2021a ; Patocka et al, 2021 ) and was reported constantly in mushroom poisoning incidents from tropical Asia (Chandrasekharan et al, 2020 ; Parnmen et al, 2021 ; Li et al, 2022 ).…”

Two new Inosperma (Inocybaceae) species with unexpected muscarine contents from tropical China

“…( Lurie et al 2009 ). Many Inocybaceae species were well known to contain muscarine (Peredy et al 2014; Patocka et al 2021 ), and various methods have been used to detect this toxin in the past years ( Fahrig 1920 ; Eugster 1957 ; Brown et al 1962 ; Robbers 1964; Kosentka et al 2013 ; Latha et al 2020 ). Five Inosperma species were reported as muscarine positive, including I.…”

“…For humans, a lethal dose of muscarine is estimated from 40 mg to 495 mg (Pauli et al 2005). Based on the muscarine concentrations of between 0.1% to 0.33% (dry weight) in Inocybaceae spp., a single mushroom can be lethal ( Puschner 2018 ; Patocka et al 2021 ). Consequently, the two new species proposed by the present study were considered to be more dangerous when mistakenly ingested by humans.…”

“…Muscarine C 9 H 20 NO 2 + , CAS number: 300–54–9, is a toxic alkaloid found in Inocybaceae , Clitocybe and several other mushroom genera ( Patocka et al 2021 ). The ingestion of muscarine-containing mushrooms would cause diaphoresis, salivation, urination, nausea, vomiting, gastrointestinal effects and muscular cramp, and fatal muscarinic syndromes like miosis, bronchoconstriction, and bradycardias in humans ( Wilson 1947 ; Lurie et al 2009 ; Chandrasekharan et al 2020 ; Latha et al 2020 ; Patocka et al 2021 ), or even death (Pauli et al 2005; Işıloğlu et al 2009; Zosel et al 2015 ). Many species of Inocybaceae are known to contain muscarine ( Malone et al 1962 ), especially in Inocybe sensu stricto , and Pseudosperma ( Kosentka et al 2013 ; Matheny et al 2020 ).…”