Chemistry and Microbiology of Urban Roof Runoff in Kraków, Poland with Ecological and Health Risk Implications

Abstract

Urban rainwater samples, collected in various districts of Kraków during the period from the spring of 2019 to the winter of 2020, were investigated, and relevant risk implications were assessed. The contents of 31 components were determined, including: bacteria, fungi, pH, EC, Cl-, N-NO3, P-PO4, SO42-, SiO2, K, Mg, Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cu, K, Mg, Mo, Na, Pb, Sb, and Zn. The highest contents of the investigated elements were determined in the industrial (eastern) part of Kraków. The values of toxicity potential were <1, indicating a lack of ecological risk. The value of contamination degree indicated moderate rainwater contamination in all analyzed elements (Cdeg = 9.44). The total non-carcinogenic risk values, in both adults (hazard quotient (HQ) = 1.38) and children (HQ = 2.54), exceeded the acceptable level of one. Regarding individual elements in dermal contact, the acceptable level of 1 × 10−6 was exceeded in Pb (adults carcinogenic risk (CR) = 4.87 × 10−5, children CR = 2.23 × 10−5). The contents of the analyzed chemical compounds did not exceed the permissible levels adopted for drinking water; however, rainwater was significantly contaminated with respect to its microbiological parameters. Rainwater was suitable for non-potable use.

Geochemical State of Wilga River Environment in Kraków (Poland)—Historical Aspects and Existing Issues

“…Aquatic systems are a very important element of the environment, as they provide the habitat for biological life, represent a water source for humans, but also function as a collector of various contaminants and pollutants, derived e.g., from wastewater discharge, fossil fuel combustion or atmospheric deposition, generally connected with growing urbanization and industrialization [1,2]. The deterioration of water quality and quantity is a worldwide problem that concerns not only the developing but also the developed areas of the Earth [3], including European countries [4][5][6], e.g., Spain [7], Portugal [8], Malta [9] and Poland [10][11][12]. Both the quality and quantity of water resources in Poland are relatively poor when compared to other countries in Europe and the European Union.…”

Determination of Pollution and Environmental Risk Assessment of Stormwater and the Receiving River, Case Study of the Sudół River Catchment, Poland

“…A comparison of the obtained values of the average and maximum concentrations of the pollutants studied in the present study and the calculations made by De Buyck et al is presented in Table 12. In order to relate the obtained results of the study to previous Polish studies, a comparison was made with the results of Strzebońska et al [102], who conducted a study of the quality of roof runoff in Krakow, and studies of the quality of stormwater in cities by Poznań [103], Częstochowa [104], and Kielce [105]. 5), which causes an increase in flow (Table 6).…”

Special Issue on Heavy Metals in the Environment—Causes and Consequences

“…Strzebo ńska et al [8] have investigated the geochemistry of water coming from rooftops in the city of Kraków (southern Poland). Water runoff from the city, including water from the roofs, is an important factor affecting the quality of surface water.…”