Chemically Engineered Immune Cell‐Derived Microrobots and Biomimetic Nanoparticles: Emerging Biodiagnostic and Therapeutic Tools

Abstract

Over the past decades, considerable attention has been dedicated to the exploitation of diverse immune cells as therapeutic and/or diagnostic cell-based microrobots for hard-to-treat disorders. To date, a plethora of therapeutics based on alive immune cells, surface-engineered immune cells, immunocytes' cell membranes, leukocyte-derived extracellular vesicles or exosomes, and artificial immune cells have been investigated and a few have been introduced into the market. These systems take advantage of the unique characteristics and functions of immune cells, including their presence in circulating blood and various tissues, complex crosstalk properties, high affinity to different self and foreign markers, unique potential of their on-demand navigation and activity, production of a variety of chemokines/cytokines, as well as being cytotoxic in particular conditions. Here, the latest progress in the development of engineered therapeutics and diagnostics inspired by immune cells to ameliorate cancer, inflammatory conditions, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular complications, and infectious diseases is reviewed, and finally, the perspective for their clinical application is delineated.

Macrophage Cell Membrane‐Cloaked Nanoplatforms for Biomedical Applications

“…These approaches include 1) live macrophages as drug delivery vehicles, 2) macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) and EV-like NPs as drug delivery vehicles, 3) macrophagederived proteolipid nanovesicles as drug delivery vehicles, and 4) MCM-based NPs as drug delivery vehicles. [41,42]…”

COVID-19 inflammation and implications in drug delivery

“…Interestingly, some native cells, including immune cells, thrombocytes, and mesenchymal stem cells, have an inherent affinity for inflammation tissues and/or anti-inflammatory properties [ 110 ]. Their derived systems can be employed as therapeutics by themselves, as they hold multiple bioactive molecules (e.g., miRNA and proteins), or can be leveraged for anti-inflammatory and/or antiviral agents’ delivery against COVID-19, as they express a multitude of targeting molecules on their surface [ 111 ]. For these purposes, either the cell’s membranes or their naturally secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be used.…”

Artificial Lipids and Macrophage Membranes Coassembled Biomimetic Nanovesicles for Antibacterial Treatment

“…[ 16–18 ] In particular, membranes derived from erythrocytes and macrophages have been explored for biodetoxification applications. [ 19,20 ] Thus, erythrocyte membrane‐coated nanoparticles can neutralize several bacterial pore‐forming toxins despite of molecular structures, [ 21,22 ] while macrophage membranes are able to inherit macrophage capacity to absorb endotoxins and proinflammatory cytokines to manage diseases, such as sepsis. [ 23,24 ] Although with many progresses, these biological membranes usually show intrinsic disadvantages of poor stability and fluidity, together with difficulties of membrane modifications.…”

“…[16][17][18] In particular, membranes derived from erythrocytes and macrophages have been explored for biodetoxification applications. [19,20] Thus, erythrocyte membrane-coated Tissue bacterial infections are a major pathological factor in many diseases. Effects on this aspect are in focus for the development of coordinated therapeutic strategies for bacterial killing and anti-inflammation.…”