Chemical Fractionation, Environmental, and Human Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Soil of Industrialised Urban Areas in Serbia

Abstract

The primary focus of this research was the chemical fractionation of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and their presence in several industrialised cities in Serbia. Furthermore, their origin, contamination levels, and environmental and human health risks were assessed. The results indicated that the examined soils were characterised by slightly higher Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn levels than those set by European and national regulations. These elevated Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations were caused by intensive traffic and proximity to industry, whereas the higher Ni levels were a result of the specific geological substrate of the soil in the study area. The environmental risk was found to be low and there was no enrichment/contamination of the soil with these elements, except in the case of Pb, for which moderate to significant enrichment was found. Lead also poses a potential non-carcinogenic risk to children through ingestion and requires special attention due to the fact that a significant proportion of this element was present in the tested soil samples in a potentially available form. Analysis of the health risks showed that children are more at risk than adults from contaminants and that ingestion is the riskiest exposure route. The carcinogenic risk was within the acceptable limits.

Bioaccumulation of Potentially Toxic Elements in Tilia tomentosa Moench Trees from Urban Parks and Potential Health Risks from Using Leaves and Flowers for Medicinal Purposes

“…For this study, it was assumed that 3 cups of tea were consumed per day, with approximately 2 g of the plant being used for each cup (i.e., in this case, I = 0.006 kg day −1 ). DIM (mg kg −1 day −1 ) (Equation ( 5)) represents the ratio between EDI and body mass [3,46,47]:…”

“…Urban soils are a vital component of urban ecosystems and greatly influence human health due to the intense anthropogenic activity in urban habitats. With regard to this, one of the main problems identified in urban soils is the presence of traditional inorganic pollutants, e.g., heavy metals, accumulated in soils or accumulated in plants growing in polluted soils [3,7,49].…”

“…Increasing urbanisation has led to pollution becoming one of the most significant issues in cities, with significant environmental degradation occurring as the population rises. Pollutant emissions in urban areas have a major detrimental effect on human health [1][2][3]. In particular, air pollutants have become a significant global threat, and currently, almost half of the world's population is exposed to poor air quality [4].…”

“…While urbanisation clearly has a negative impact on health, doubts remain over whether green spaces such as parks and playgrounds actually do provide the health benefits that have been reported [13]. There is general agreement that urban trees play a central role in improving urban habitat quality by facilitating the deposition of air pollutants and particles, as they provide large surface areas as well as the uptake of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) from the soil [3,12,[14][15][16][17][18][19].…”

Contamination Levels and the Ecological and Human Health Risks of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Soil of Baoshan Area, Southwest China

“…for the calculations are listed below: HI = HQ ingestion + HQ inhalation + HQ dermal (11) TCR = CR ingestion + CR inhalation + CR dermal (12) However, because HI and TCR refer to the risks of a single PTE, their cumulative values were calculated to provide a more complete picture; this shows the entire impact of all PTEs across all exposure pathways. The cumulative hazard index (CHI) and cumulative total cancer risk are calculated using the following Equations [86]:…”