Chemical control and insecticide resistance status of sand fly vectors worldwide

Abstract

Background Phlebotomine sand flies are prominent vectors of Leishmania parasites that cause leishmaniasis, which comes second to malaria in terms of parasitic causative fatalities globally. In the absence of human vaccines, sand fly chemical-based vector control is a key component of leishmaniasis control efforts. Methods and findings We performed a literature review on the current interventions, primarily, insecticide-based used for sand fly control, as well as the global insecticide resistance (IR) status of the main sand fly vector species. Indoor insecticidal interventions, such as residual spraying and treated bed nets are the most widely deployed, while several alternative control strategies are also used in certain settings and/or are under evaluation. IR has been sporadically detected in sand flies in India and other regions, using non-standardized diagnostic bioassays. Molecular studies are limited to monitoring of known pyrethroid resistance mutations (kdr), which are present at high frequencies in certain regions. Conclusions As the leishmaniasis burden remains a major problem at a global scale, evidence-based rational use of insecticidal interventions is required to meet public health demands. Standardized bioassays and molecular markers are a prerequisite for this task, albeit are lagging behind. Experiences from other disease vectors underscore the need for the implementation of appropriate IR management (IRM) programs, in the framework of integrated vector management (IVM). The implementation of alternative strategies seems context- and case-specific, with key eco-epidemiological parameters yet to be investigated. New biotechnology-based control approaches might also come into play in the near future to further reinforce sand fly/leishmaniasis control efforts.

Amphotericin B Nano-Assemblies Circumvent Intrinsic Toxicity and Ensure Superior Protection in Experimental Visceral Leishmaniasis with Feeble Toxic Manifestation

“…The effective management of leishmaniasis relies on strategies that encompass both vector control as well as accessible chemotherapeutic options to effectively cure the disease [ 6 ]. Since therapy, with obsolete therapeutic drugs, is often marred with issues such as severe side effects, parasitic resistance, and enhanced post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) occurrence [ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 ], repurposing of the drugs, such as AmB, could possibly result in the better clinical management of the disease [ 10 ].…”

Monitoring of Insecticide Resistance Mutations and Pathogen Circulation in Sand Flies from Emilia-Romagna, a Leishmaniasis Endemic Region of Northern Italy

“…Regarding sand flies, information in the literature on the response profile of wild populations to insecticides around the globe remains seriously limited. However, recent phenotypic data (bioassays) and molecular analyses (e.g., detection of knock-down resistance ( kdr ) mutations L1014F/S in the voltage-gated sodium channel ( VGSC ) gene related to loss of sensitivity to pyrethroids) of dominant sand fly vector species, wild populations originating from countries with the highest leishmaniasis burden in north-eastern Asia and the Middle East, revealed that insecticide resistance in sand flies poses an up-coming and alarming issue [ 19 ].…”

Transgenerational effects of lambda-cyhalothrin on Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae)

“…However, potential health and environmental risks are associated with indoor application of pesticides. It has been observed that insecticide-based baits are more effective and ecologically safe in insect-vector control efforts than residual sprays 9 , 10 . Pyrethroid insecticides like lambda-cyhalothrin are among the most popular options for the management of insect-vectors at domestic and commercial scale.…”