Chemical composition and sources of particle pollution in affluent and poor neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana

Abstract

The highest levels of air pollution in the world now occur in developing country cities, where air pollution sources differ from high-income countries. We analyzed particulate matter (PM) chemical composition and estimated the contributions of various sources to particle pollution in poor and affluent neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. Elements from earth's crust were most abundant during the seasonal Harmattan period between late December and late January when Saharan dust is carried to coastal West Africa. During Harmattan, crustal particles accounted for 55 µg m −3 (37%) of fine particle (PM 2.5 ) mass and 128 µg m −3 (42%) of PM 10 mass. Outside Harmattan, biomass combustion, which was associated with higher black carbon, potassium, and sulfur, accounted for between 10.6 and 21.3 µg m −3 of fine particle mass in different neighborhoods, with its contribution largest in the poorest neighborhood. Other sources were sea salt, vehicle emissions, tire and brake wear, road dust, and solid waste burning. Reducing air pollution in African cities requires policies related to energy, transportation and urban planning, and forestry and agriculture, with explicit attention to impacts of each strategy in poor communities. Such cross-sectoral integration requires emphasis on urban environment and urban poverty in the post-2015 Development Agenda.

Personal particulate matter exposures and locations of students in four neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana

“…Smoking is very uncommon in Ghana, with prevalence below 10% nationally and in our sample. 10,26 Those who smoke commonly smoke outside the house.…”

“…2 Although there are some similarities in the sources and spatial patterns of air pollution in cities in developing countries compared with those in high-income countries (e.g., traffic-related pollution), there are also significant differences (e.g., biomass use for cooking). [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] For example, biomass use, which is common in both rural and urban areas, 11,12 accounts for between one third and one half of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ; particles below 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter) pollution in different neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana, with another 10-30% due to traffic and road dust. 10 These factors are also important determinants of the spatial patterns of air pollution between and within neighborhoods, and of its concentrations in the household environment.…”

“…[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] For example, biomass use, which is common in both rural and urban areas, 11,12 accounts for between one third and one half of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ; particles below 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter) pollution in different neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana, with another 10-30% due to traffic and road dust. 10 These factors are also important determinants of the spatial patterns of air pollution between and within neighborhoods, and of its concentrations in the household environment. 5,8,13 Time-location-activity patterns in the developing world are also different from high-income countries due to differences in the built environment, transportation, and sociocultural factors.…”

Worldwide Exposures to Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Associated Health Effects

“…133,134 Further, PM in different parts of the world is emitted by different sources -including vehicle and industrial emissions, residential coal and biomass burning, crustal dust, and even sea salt. 136,137 There is growing evidence that the health effects of PM depend on its source and chemical composition. 138,139 .…”

A horizon scan of environmental drivers of poverty

“…It is defined by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of pastoral, agricultural and wooded land due to soil erosion, soil impoverishment (such as nutrient depletion) and/or the loss of natural vegetation. Around 24% of the word's land surface area is degraded; around 1.5 billion people depend on that land; and much of it lies Zhou et al (2013) in sub-Saharan Africa where it is critical to the livelihoods of poor farmers. 50 Yet while interest in research on poverty and its linkage with environmental degradation has grown rapidly over the last few decades, there is still no consensus on the impact of poverty on land degradation and vice versa, for three main reasons: (1) the complexity of the linkages;…”