Charge transport in pure and stabilized amorphous selenium: re-examination of the density of states distribution in the mobility gap and the role of defects

Abstract

We re-examine electron and hole transport in pure and stabilized amorphous selenium (a-Se) and attempt to construct a DOS distribution in the mobility gap below E c and above E v based on time-of-flight (TOF) transient photoconductivity measurements. First, we review the current status of a-Se, its recent use in commercial X-ray detectors, and the scientific information that is available in terms of its density of states (DOS). We review and describe a convenient multiple trapping transport mechanism to calculate the TOF transient photocurrents in a system with a distributed DOS in the mobility gap and invoke a number of assumptions that allow the photocurrent to be calculated as an inverse Laplace transform. The assumptions behind the model are critically examined. Then, by comparing the calculated TOF photocurrent shapes directly with experimental waveforms, the DOS distribution has been extracted in a-Se in the vicinity of conduction and valence bands (below E c and above E v ). Below the conduction band, the DOS distribution seems to demonstrate three peaks at around E c -0.30 eV, E c -0.45 eV and below E c -0.55 eV. First principles atomistic modeling provided insight into the origins of these peaks and the peaks have been assigned to certain valence-alteration pairs (VAPs) appearing in different configurations. In contrast to the conduction band vicinity, the DOS distribution above the valence band seems to be almost totally featureless. Within the range of experimental uncertainties, a featureless DOS below E v down to 0.55 eV seems to be able to explain a vast range of data, that is, it can explain hole transport not only as a function of the electric field and temperature down to 123 K, but also the thickness dependence of the mobility over two orders of magnitude. At room temperature, the hole transport is nondispersive but at temperatures below *200 K, it becomes dispersive exactly along the lines argued by Pfister and Scher (Adv Phys 27:747, 1978), and the mobility evinces a clear thickness dependence. The first principles calculations yield two defect levels related to VAP type defects in this region of the mobility gap but the valence band tail is so broad that it masks these peaks. This seeming asymmetry between the conduction and valence bands may be related to their physical origins: the conduction band arises from antibonding states and valence band is due to interacting lone pairs.

Density of localized state distribution near the valence band in stabilized a‐Se using interrupted field time of flight measurements with long interruption times

“…The general ideas of TOF calculations we have used for modeling the carrier propagation in a‐Se is described in Ref. . Figure (a) shows a convincing agreement of MC and numerical calculations in “infinitely” thick samples with experimental data at one particular interruption time (118 μs), chosen simply to highlight the excellent agreement.…”

“…The theoretical modeling of a-Se [10,17] predicts the existence of C À 1 related DOS peaks below E v . Some experiments do indeed seem to support this result.…”

“…Its density of states (DOS) has been studied by different groups of researchers, who have tried to construct a DOS distribution that could explain their own experiments or experiments reported by others [4][5][6][7][8][9], as recently reviewed by the present authors in Ref. [10]. Original DOS proposed by Abkowitz in 1988 [4] was essentially based on shallow trap controlled drift and trapping.…”

“…However, the latter results may be influenced by holes diffusing to the surface of a-Se, which is well known to provide deep hole traps [16]. Conventional TOF transient photocurrents measured on a-Se sandwitched between electrodes, for a very large range of fields and temperatures, indicate a continuously decreasing DOS from E v into the mobility gap, up to about 0.55 eV [10].…”

Determination of the Lifetime in As Doped a-Se from Transient Photocurrents using Laplace Transform Technique

“…The density of states studied in detail by Kasap et al [5,6] is a featureless, monotonically decreasing distribution in energy. According to Benkhedir et al [7], in pure a-Se above the valance band edge E v DOS consists of a shallow defect level at ∼ 0.25 eV above E v and a defect level at ∼ 0.45 eV.…”