Characterizing the pigment composition of a variable warning signal of Parasemia plantaginis larvae

Abstract

Summary1. Aposematic animals advertise their defences to predators via warning signals that often are bright colours combined with black patterns. Predation is assumed to select for large pattern elements and conspicuousness of warning signals because this enhances avoidance learning of predators. However, conspicuousness of the colour pattern can vary among individuals of aposematic species, suggesting that warning signal expression may be constrained by opposing selection pressures. If effective warning signals are costly to produce, variation in signal expression may be maintained via physiological trade-offs. To understand the costs of signalling that might underlay both physiological and ecological trade-offs, it is crucial to identify the pigments involved in aposematic traits, how they or their precursors are acquired and how their production and ⁄ or deposition interact with other physiological processes. 2. We characterized the pigments responsible for the genetically and phenotypically variable orange-black warning signal of the hairy larvae of an Arctiid moth, Parasemia plantaginis. We tested orange and black coloured hairs for the presence of six candidate pigment types using high-performance liquid chromatography, spectral and solubility analyses. 3. After excluding the presence of carotenoids, ommochromes, pterins and pheomelanins in orange hairs, our results suggest that tiger moth larvae produce their orange warning signal by depositing both diet-derived flavonoids and trace levels of synthesized eumelanin in their hairs. The nearby black hairs are coloured by eumelanin. 4. In light of previous studies, we conclude that although a large orange patch increases the 1larvae's antipredator efficacy, variation in the size of orange patches within a population can be driven by scarcity of flavonoids in diet. However, traces of eumelanin found in the orange hairs of the larvae may also play a significant role in the maintenance of the signal pattern on poor quality diets. 5. The goal of the future studies will be to test the condition dependence of pigment deposition in aposematic colour patterns by directly manipulating relevant nutritional parameters such as dietary flavonoid or nitrogen content (i.e. amino acid content).

Trade-off between warning signal efficacy and mating success in the wood tiger moth

“…Males used in the assays originated from divergent selection lines for larval coloration (small and large orange patch, see Lindstedt et al [38]. However, larval coloration does not affect male colour [20]. Both white and yellow morph are visually distinctive and easy to distinguish by the human eye (figure 1), which allowed easy categorization of individuals for the experiments.…”

“…Parasemia plantaginis is widely distributed over the Northern Hemisphere and inhabits a variety of habitats [19], but rarely occurs in high densities. The genetic morphs of males have visually distinct hind wing colours ( [20]; figures 1a and 2b); the most typical in Europe are yellow and white with various degrees of melanization. Parasemia plantaginis larvae and females are shown to be aposematic [21,22], and the defence chemicals (e.g.…”

“…Parasemia plantaginis larvae and females are shown to be aposematic [21,22], and the defence chemicals (e.g. iridoid glycosides) larvae sequester are transferred to the adult females and males [20].…”

Environment‐mediated morph‐linked immune and life‐history responses in the aposematic wood tiger moth

“…The most typical colour morphs in Europe are yellow and white with various degrees of melanization (Lindstedt et al . ; Nokelainen et al . ).…”

Mechanisms of Color Production in a Highly Variable Shield-Back Stinkbug, Tectocoris diopthalmus (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae), and Why It Matters

“…To distinguish between other candidate pigment classes (melanins, pterins, flavonoids, and ommochromes), a discriminatory extraction test, modified from Lindstedt et al [41], was used. Pterins and flavonoids are soluble in strong acids and bases, but flavonoids are also soluble in neutral organic solvents such as methanol, while ommochromes are soluble in acidified alcohols [28] [42].…”