Characterization of the Fine Particle Emissions from the Use of Two Fischer–Tropsch Fuels in a CFM56-2C1 Commercial Aircraft Engine

Abstract

The fine particulate matter (PM) emissions from the use of two types of Fischer–Tropsch aviation fuels and their 50:50 blends with military JP-8 were quantified as part of the first Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX). Measurements were made 30-m downstream of a CFM56-2C1 engine for PM mass and number, particle size distribution, black carbon (BC), and volatile PM (sulfate + organics) using selected online instrumentation. The PM number emission index (EIN) ranged from ∼2 × 1015 to 7 × 1016 particles/kg fuel burned depending on fuel flow, fuel composition, and sampling temperature with the magnitude of the emissions inversely correlated to fuel flow. The PM mass emissions (EIM) measured in the study varied from ∼5 to 680 mg/kg fuel, again depending on fuel flow, fuel type, and sampling temperature with a characteristic U-shaped curve of EIM with respect to fuel flow observed from the data. At low fuel flow (corresponding to low engine power), particle number and volume size distributions contained a single mode, whereas at higher engine power, a bimodal distribution was observed. The BC emissions varied from ∼3 to 415 mg/kg fuel depending on fuel type and were found to exponentially increase with engine power (fuel flow). The volatile PM varied with sample temperature, fuel type, and increasing fuel flow within the range of EIs from ∼0.4 to 11 mg/kg fuel with the highest values being at low fuel flow. Finally, the use of the two neat alternative fuels reduced the EIN by a median value of 70–73% and the EIM by ∼94% as compared to JP-8 across all power conditions tested.

Technical application of a ternary alternative jet fuel blend – Chemical characterization and impact on jet engine particle emission

“…Aircraft jet engines release volatile and non-volatile particles which feature different aerosol dynamics, airborne transport range and exposure potential [6,7]. Lab and field studies with alternative jet fuel blends have demonstrated that jet fuels with an elevated hydrogen content (low amount of unsaturated hydrocarbons) show lower soot emissions than a regular reference Jet A-1 for the same engine [8][9][10][11][12]. However, in order to use SAF in aviation, compliance with sustainability criteria have to be monitored along the entire supply chain.…”

A CFM56 típusú kétáramú gázturbinás sugárhajtómű égésterének numerikus áramlástani modellezése

“…Nagyon fontos természetesen a hajtóművek hosszú élettartama, hogy minél kisebb költséggel üzemben tarthatók legyenek, amit napjainkban már igen fejlett digitális elektronikus szabályozó [1] és diagnosztikai rendszerek [20] biztosítanak. Ilyen megoldások mellett más eljárásokra is szükség van, hogy a gazdaságosságon túl további, például környezetvédelmi előírásoknak is megfeleljen az üzemeltetett légi jármű [10]. A gyártók évtizedes tapasztalataikat felhasználva egyre újabb égéstér-konstrukciókat hoznak létre, amelyek -ötvözve a modern anyagtechnológia fémmátrixos kerámia alapanyagaival -nagy mértékben képesek az egyre szigorodó feltételeket teljesíteni [11].…”

Characteristics of sub-10 nm particle emissions from in-use commercial aircraft observed at Narita International Airport

“…Other previous studies also reported that the mode diameters of particle number EIs generally ranged from ~10 to 20 nm under high engine thrust conditions (e.g., Kinsey, 2009;Yu et al, 2017Yu et al, , 2019). An exception is Kinsey et al (2019), who investigated the emission characteristics of a commercial gas turbine engine (CFM56-2C1) onboard a DC-8 with blending two types of fuels (military JP-8 and Fischer-Tropsch: FT) under various thrust conditions and ambient temperatures. The sulphur content of fuels for the FT-fuels were much lower than that for the JP-8 fuels.…”

“…A number of experiments have been performed at engine-test facilities and under real-world conditions to investigate gaseous and particulate emissions from aircraft equipped with turbofan engines, which are commonly used in civil aviation (e.g., Hagen et al, 1998;Petzold et al, 1999Petzold et al, , 2005Kärcher et al, 2000;Brock et al, 2000;Herndon et al, 2008;Westerdahl et al, 2008;Onasch et al, 2009;Kinsey, 2009;Timko et al, 2010;Lobo et al, 2015aLobo et al, , 2015bMoore et al, 2017aMoore et al, , 2017bKinsey et al, 2019;Yu et al, 2017Yu et al, , 2019Durdina et al, 2019). The key findings from the previous studies include the following two points.…”