CHAPTER 11: Urban Education and the "Truly Disadvantaged": The Historical Roots of the Contemporary Crisis, 1945-1990

A Systematic Review of Neighborhood and Institutional Relationships Related to Education

“…At the macroecological level, broader social forces define systems of relationships. Here, we locate the field's concerns about macroeconomic conditions for example and their influence on policy making at the exo level (Mirel, 1993;Wilson, 1996); neighborhood inequality at the meso level (Jargowsky, 1997;Wilson, 1987); and schooling at the microecological strata (Anyon, 1987;Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). The exo level represents concerted efforts to affect the quality of neighborhoods, schools, and their association, consisting of policies adopted by representatives of broader communities (e.g., city councils, school boards, public housing authorities, teachers' unions, etc.)…”

Choice: The route to community control?

“…The resulting impoverishment of inner city economies, combined with racially segregated urban landscapes, has created sharp educational inequities (Barnekov & Rich, 1995;Bettis, 1994;Kantor & Brenzel, 1992). After the urban unrest of the 1960s, the strategic placement of available high quality housing and employment opportunities in the suburban areas in the 1970s and 1980s created a form of "urban containment" (Massey & Eggers, 1990;Orfield & Ashkinaze, 1991;Wilhelm, 1970) in which Whites left the cities (later followed by some middle-class African Americans and Latinos).…”

Racial/ethnic Heterogeneity in the Socioeconomic Patterning of CVD Risk Factors: in the United States: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

“…For example, the positive income gradients in Black men for BMI may be indicative of excessive stress and/or high effort coping among higher-income earners, resulting in poorer lifestyle choices. 35 Alternatively, the adverse BMI profiles among high-income Black men in our sample may also be indicative of a greater adoption of a “rich” diet (resulting in greater caloric and fat consumption) reflecting their higher status, particularly in light of the history of oppression, racial discrimination, and minimal post–civil rights advancement experienced by this group in the U.S. 36,37 …”