Chapter 1

Abstract

This chapter examines the evolution of rituals for establishing social bonds and hierarchies in medieval Europe, focusing on the transformation from oral professions of obedience to formalized, written vows. It explores the adaptation of these rituals from the eighth to the fifteenth century, highlighting how ecclesiastical and civic organizations utilized the potent combination of spoken words, manual gestures, and the handling of documents to maintain order and allegiance. Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury, systematized professions of obedience, which were initially personalized and then gradually became more formulaic. These professions, initially linked to the church's ecclesiastical hierarchy, eventually extended to include laypeople and took on the characteristics of labor contracts. A shift in practice occurred as these professions transitioned from charters to codices, and from England to the Continent, reflecting changes in medium and ritual. Professions moved from individualized performances at the altar to collective experiences, with the Gospel manuscript emerging as a central prop in the oath-taking process, lending a theatrical and divine aspect to the rituals. The chapter finishes by analyzing the individual profession charters made by sixteenth-century nuns in the Netherlands: they reinvent the model used eight centuries earlier in Canterbury.