Changes in cultural ecosystems of a swidden society caused by the introduction of rubber plantations

Abstract

This study aims to holistically examine the process of integration of rubber production into swidden society, based on observations of Benuaq Dayak society in East Kalimantan. Before the introduction of rubber production, villagers livelihoods were based on swidden and rattan production, but household economies fared poorly owing to stagnating rattan prices. There was a high rate of rice self-sufficiency, while various work organization types and a collaborative work and profitsharing system played an important role in their livelihoods as a social safety net. The collaborative work and profit-sharing system was supported by a philosophy of mutual aid. After rubber production began, about half the villagers gave up swidden and the others switched to practicing swidden and rubber fields together. Their living standard was improved by cash income from rubber, and their rate of rice self-sufficiency dropped. A cash-income differential emerged among villagers, which caused social disruption such as arson and theft. The work organization was simplified from a collaborative work and profit-sharing system to an individual work and private-profit system. These livelihood changes and increasing cash income caused a social safety net malfunction, and impaired the philosophy of mutual aid.It is inferred that the introduction of rubber production offers the possibility of both environmental and economic improvements, but to accomplish the well-balanced development of swidden society it is important to reconstruct and maintain the social ties that have been weakened by rising cash income and simplified types of work organization. It is also necessary to establish new institutional social networks for cooperation with the government to adapt to market economy conditions.