Cerebrovascular Risk Factors and Clinical Classification of Strokes

Abstract

Cerebrovascular risk represents a progressive and evolving concept owing to the particular distribution of risk factors in patients with ischemic stroke and in light of the newest stroke subtype classifications that account for pathophysiological, instrumental, and clinical criteria. Age represents the strongest nonmodifiable risk factor associated with ischemic stroke, while hypertension constitutes the most important modifiable cerebrovascular risk factor, confirmed by a host of epidemiological data and by more recent intervention trials of primary (HOT, Syst-Eur, LIFE) and secondary (PROGRESS) prevention of stroke in hypertensive patients.To be sure, a curious relationship exists between stroke and diabetes. Although the Framingham Study, The Honolulu Heart Program, and a series of Finnish studies reported a linear relationship between improved glucose metabolism and cerebral ischemia, the clinical and prognostic profile of diabetic patients with ischemic stroke remains to be fully understood.Our group, on the basis of TOAST classification-a diagnostic classification of ischemic stroke developed in 1993 that distinguishes five different clinical subtypes of ischemic stroke: large-artery atherosclerosis (LAAS), cardioembolic infarct (CEI), lacunar infarct (LAC), stroke of other determined origin (ODE), and stroke of undetermined origin (UDE), and now extensively used in clinical and scientific context-analysed the prevalence of cerebrovascular risk factors and the distribution of TOAST subtypes in more 300 patients with acute ischemic stroke in two consecutives studies that reported the significant association between diabetes and the lacunar subtype and a better clinical outcome for diabetic patients, most likely related to the higher prevalence of the lacunar subtype.Well-confirmed are the roles of cigarette smoking, atrial fibrillation, and asymptomatic carotid stenosis as cerebrovascular risk factors. Particularly interesting seems to be the function of inflammation markers (CRP, TNF-a, IL-1b, ISPs) as potential risk factors. Still elusive remains the association between cholesterol serum levels and stroke, on the basis of the epidemiological data regarding this causative relationship, confirmed only by the results of intervention trials (4S, LIPID, CARE, HPS, ASCOT).Ultimately, cerebrovascular risk appears peculiar owing to the unique relationship between some modifiable risk factors (mainly diabetes and cholesterol) and the possible preferential association with stroke subtypes and specific cerebrovascular risks.

Acute cerebral ischaemia: Relationship between serum and cerebrospinal fluid orexin-A concentration and infarct volume

“…The most important risk factors for stroke and cardiovascular disease are diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia and smoking. 18,19 Examining the relationship between traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease and stroke might clarify the associations between CSF orexin-A concentrations and cerebrovascular infarction. Yuan et al 20 showed that orexin-A treatment can induce prominent neuroprotective effects on transient cerebral ischaemia in rats by improving neurological function and decreasing infarct size.…”

Circulating endothelial progenitor cells in Chinese patients with acute stroke

“…4,5 The same result was observed with serum hs-CRP, which has been suggested as an inflammatory parameter in patients with a cerebrovascular attack. 18,19,20 Because EPCs mobilization from bone marrow may occur following acute stroke, we hypothesized that the number of EPCs would change during the course of stroke. We therefore monitored circulating EPCs levels during the course of stroke progression.…”

Microglia and Monocyte-Derived Macrophages in Stroke

“…Common comorbidities associated with stroke include aging, elevated blood pressure, and metabolic dysfunctions. These conditions are often associated with the exacerbation of ischemic outcomes and are predictive of worse recovery [186]. The inclusion of hyperlipidemia and diabetes in animal models of stroke has demonstrated that these conditions modulate postischemic inflammatory responses and lesion development [101,152,187,188].…”