Cell healing: Calcium, repair and regeneration

Abstract

Cell repair is attracting increasing attention due to its conservation, its importance to health, and its utility as a model for cell signaling and cell polarization. However, some of the most fundamental questions concerning cell repair have yet to be answered. Here we consider three such questions: 1) How are wound holes stopped? 2) How is cell regeneration achieved after wounding? 3) How is calcium inrush linked to wound stoppage and cell regeneration?

In vitro and ex vivo strategies for intracellular delivery

“…Inundation with reactive oxygen species and other toxic molecules may cause further damage to endogenous proteins and biomolecules 49 . Thus, cells urgently deploy repair pathways to reseal membrane disruptions and recover from the damage imposed (see recent reviews [70][71][72][73][74] ).…”

“…Instead, membrane recovery is thought to depend on disruption size, collateral damage, temperature, composition of the extracellular medium, and cell type. Up to six membrane repair pathways have been proposed, primarily involving membrane-trafficking processes around the defect 71 . As the exact mechanisms remain controversial 70,71,73,74 ,…”

Ca2+–Calmodulin Dependent Wound Repair in Dictyostelium Cell Membrane

“…A variety of hypotheses for wound repair that do not involve patching have also been proposed [2,28]. For example, the 'exocytosis and endocytosis hypothesis' involves the direct removal of the wound pore via exocytosis and subsequent endocytosis [29].…”

Massive surface membrane expansion without involvement of classical exocytic mechanisms

“…In brief, the PM is continuously modified by discrete membrane fusion and excision events that transfer chemicals to and from the extracellular space and modify the protein content of the PM (Sudhof and Rothman, 2009). Beyond the transport of chemicals and membrane proteins, PM expansion can become essential for cell growth (Tojima et al, 2014), to allow cell swelling (Groulx et al, 2006), to repair PM wounds (Togo et al, 1999;Cooper and McNeil, 2015;Corrotte et al, 2015;Moe et al, 2015), to relax membrane tension caused by chronic stretch, e.g. bladder extension (Lewis and de Moura, 1984), and to execute multiple steps of fertilization in mammals (Gadella and Evans, 2011).…”

“…Eukaryotic cells use exocytosis and endocytosis to increase and decrease their surface membrane areas, thereby transferring chemicals to and from the extracellular space and modifying the protein content of the surface membrane (Sudhof and Rothman, 2009) . Besides these functions, surface membrane expansion may become essential to allow cell growth (Tojima et al, 2014), to allow cell swelling (Groulx et al, 2006), and to repair membrane wounds in the surface membrane (Cooper and McNeil, 2015;Corrotte et al, 2015;Moe et al, 2015) .…”