Catholic Religious Orders of Women in China: Adaptation and Power

Abstract

Although sociologists have argued that religious orders fulfill the same creative functions within Catholicism that sectarian groups perform for Protestantism, no research has examined whether the orders can serve this function in non-Western societies where Catholics are a minority. This article examines Catholic religious orders of women in mainland China today. Both internal and external factors prevent Chinese sisters from gaining the power and autonomy they would need to serve as change agents in the Chinese Catholic Church. The effectiveness of external attempts to ameliorate the sisters' difficulties is evaluated.

Chinese Catholic Nuns and the Organization of Religious Life in Contemporary China

“…The historical roots of female religious life in Catholic China have been the subject of recent studies and interpretations (Lutz 2010;Leung and Wittberg 2004;Menegon 2009;Entenmann 1996;Kang 2013). The earliest form was introduced by Spanish Dominican missionaries in seventeenth-century Fujian, and soon after, by French missionaries in Sichuan province (Leung and Wittberg 2004).…”

“…The historical roots of female religious life in Catholic China have been the subject of recent studies and interpretations (Lutz 2010;Leung and Wittberg 2004;Menegon 2009;Entenmann 1996;Kang 2013). The earliest form was introduced by Spanish Dominican missionaries in seventeenth-century Fujian, and soon after, by French missionaries in Sichuan province (Leung and Wittberg 2004). Following the example of Petronilla Chen, a young Christian from Minding who pronounced vows in 1643, some Chinese women were invited by missionaries to embrace the ideal of consecrated life and celibacy in order to assist their Catholic community (Kang 2013, p. 31).…”

“…If a nun demonstrates specific abilities, the congregation might ask her to pursue additional training in theology, biblical studies, education, medical care, and so on. Thus, the congregation has mobilized national and international connections, such as Catholic priests and nuns who regularly circulate across China, in order to identify relevant schools and ways to afford tuitions (Leung and Wittberg 2004). Today, sixteen Little Sisters of Mary have been abroad for a Master or a Ph.D. program (France, Italy, Philippines, Taiwan, and the USA).…”

“…Each of these diocesan organizations is neither specialized nor stable but keeps evolving in multiple directions as they partially escape from clerical and state monitoring (Entenmann 1996). Despite all the efforts and frustrations of foreign actors who offer training and retreats to Chinese nuns in order to guide them into a predefined Catholic religious way of life (Leung and Wittberg 2004), Chinese Catholic nuns continue to carefully test the waters and determine how their religious calling can grow in the current reality of China. Thus, they continue a long Chinese Catholic tradition of adaptation (Bays 2012, p. 199).…”

“…The two congregations together help to appreciate how Chinese Catholic nuns are incessantly adjusting their religious commitment and their role in the Catholic Church in China. If scholars have argued that their unique features are due to governmental opposition and cultural difficulties, and suggest a partial failure in meeting Catholic norms (Leung and Wittberg 2004), this research instead suggests that Chinese nuns value alternative Catholic models of religious life because they empower them in designing a lifestyle suitable to their socio-historical context.…”