Categorizing 10 Sports According to Bone and Soft Tissue Profiles in Adolescents

Abstract

Considering the different loading and training characteristics of the sports practiced during growth, it is important to specify and categorize the bone and soft tissue adaptations in adolescent athletes. This study aimed to categorize ten different loading sports and a non-sport group and identify the differences in bone density and soft tissues. Methods: The sample included 625 adolescents (10 to 17 years of age) of ten sports (soccer, basketball, volleyball, track & field, judo, karate, kung-fu, gymnastics, baseball and swimming) and a non-sport group. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry assessed areal bone mineral density (aBMD), bone mineral apparent density (BMAD) and soft tissues (lean soft tissue and fat mass). The results were adjusted for sex, peak height velocity (PHV) status, lean soft tissue, fat mass and weekly training volume. Results:The comparisons among groups showed that soccer had the highest whole body aBMD (mean  SEM: 1.082 g/cm 2  0.007) and lower limbs aBMD (1.302g/cm 2  0.010). Gymnastics presented the highest upper limbs (0.868 g/cm 2  0.012) and whole body BMAD (0.094 g/cm 2  0.001). Swimming presented the lowest aBMD values in all skeletal sites (except at the upper limbs) and whole body BMAD. The soft tissue comparisons showed that soccer had the highest lean soft tissue (43.8 kg  0.7). The lowest fat mass was found in gymnastics (8.04 kg  1.0). Conclusion: The present study investigated and categorised for the first time ten different sports according to bone density and soft tissue profiles. Soccer and gymnastics sport groups found to have the highest bone density in most body segments and both sports were among the groups with the lowest fat mass.

Relationships of Bone Mineral Variables with Body Composition, Blood Hormones and Training Volume in Adolescent Female Athletes with Different Loading Patterns

“…Firstly, the relatively small sample size, determined by the small number of well-trained athletes, which also represent a very specific group of adolescent females (Caucasian, narrow age range, similar body composition). However, the number of participants was comparable to previous similar studies in this area [ 7 , 12 , 14 , 32 ]. Secondly, the cross-sectional design of the investigation, which cannot determine the cause-effect relationships.…”

“…These results further demonstrate that regular participation in weight-bearing athletic activities during adolescence is beneficial for bone mineral accrual. In addition, an indirect pathway for bone mineral adaptations in adolescent RG athletes includes whole-body and regional lean soft tissue mass [ 8 , 9 ], which has been reported to be associated with training volume in adolescent athletes [ 8 , 12 , 28 , 38 ]. In accordance, appendicular muscle mass was associated with areal bone mineral values in all studied groups in the present study.…”

“…Among the variables capable of affecting bone health, hormonal [ 4 , 5 ] and mechanical [ 6 , 7 ] factors that include body composition [ 8 , 9 ] and physical activity [ 10 , 11 ] play an important role in bone mineral accrual during adolescence. Accordingly, physical exercise is highly beneficial to increase areal bone mineral density (aBMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) during adolescence [ 12 ]. These beneficial effects of physical exercise are primarily linked to the mechanisms of mechanical loading either from the impact with the ground, such as various jumps and sprints and/or from skeletal muscle contractions, such as during strength training, but the relative importance of these two sources has not yet been exactly determined [ 6 , 13 ].…”

“…Athletic activity has a direct effect on bone mass accumulation via mechanical loading [ 7 , 10 ], while an indirect effect is generated via hormonal regulation [ 6 , 18 ]. Sport training also stimulates different body composition tissues that consequently increase mechanical loading of specific athletic activities [ 8 , 12 ] and produce specific muscle- and adipose-tissue derived cytokines [ 10 , 19 ] that influence bone mass accumulation in highly trained female adolescent athletes. Specifically, bone mineral accrual in girls may be especially promoted by the increase in estrogens together with insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) concentrations [ 4 , 20 ], which correspond to the timing of menarche and peak bone mass acquisition [ 21 ].…”

Observed and predicted ages at peak height velocity in soccer players

“…The dependency of predicted maturity offset upon CA and body size at prediction merits attention. Means for predicted maturity offset are plotted relative to means for CA and height in the present study and in samples of male soccer players extracted from the literature [13,38,43,46,[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] are illustrated in Figs 3 and 4. The means plotted in the figures were limited to studies using the Mirwald equation, as it was more widely used in studies of soccer players.…”