Carrageenan: a review

Abstract

Carrageenan is a natural carbohydrate (polysaccharide) obtained from edible red seaweeds. The name Carrageenan is derived from the Chondrus crispus species of seaweed known as Carrageen Moss or Irish Moss in England, and Carraigin in Ireland. Carraigin has been used in Ireland since 400 AD as a gelatin and as a home remedy to cure coughs and colds. It grows along the coasts of North America and Europe. Carrageenans are used in a variety of commercial applications as gelling, thickening, and stabilising agents, especially in food products and sauces. Aside from these functions, carrageenans are used in experimental medicine, pharmaceutical formulations, cosmetics, and industrial applications.Keywords: carrageenan; pharmacokinetics; toxicity; biological activity List of abbreviations 3,6-AG = 3,6, anhydro-galactose, 5-HT = 5-hydroxytryptamine, 6-APA = 6-amino penicillanic acid, ADI = acceptable daily intake, AG = amino guanidine, AIDS = acquired immune deficiency syndrome, AT-III = anti-thrombin-III, bw = body weight, COX-2 = cyclooxygenase-2, eNOS = endothelial nitric oxide synthase, FAO = food and agriculture organization, HC-II = heparin co-factor II, HIV = human immunodeficiency virus, HPV = human papilloma virus, HSV = herpes simplex virus, IFAC = international food additives council, iNOS = inducible nitric oxide synthase, JECFA = Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, L-NMMA = NG-monomethyl-l-arginine, nNOS = neuronal nitric oxide synthase, NO = nitric oxide, NOS = nitric oxide synthase, NSAIDs = non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs, PGs = prostaglandins, SSL = sodium stearoyl lactylate, TNF-α = tumour necrosis factor-α

Nucleophilic substitution between polysulfides and binders unexpectedly stabilizing lithium sulfur battery

“…From a more practical standpoint, a polymer with improved adhesion to form conductive network structures would be more desirable, in addition to a polymer that can in situ react with polysulfide. Carrageenan is a natural polymer with sulfate groups, and polyol functional groups, which are ideal for adhesions [38] . As a natural product, carrageenan is water-soluble; all electrode processing can be done in aqueous media.…”

“…In contrast, carrageenan, a material derived from polysaccharides in seaweed [37] , has desirable features for binders such as aqueous solubility, high adhesiveness, variable concentrations of sulfate leaving groups, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. The density of sulfate groups on carrageenan controls the gelation process [38] and the extended hydroxyl groups are indigent to the polysaccharide structure, providing an extended interaction with the surrounding polar aqueous environments. Nature has inadvertently designed carrageenan to be an ideal material for sulfur electrode binder applications.…”

Chemical and Spectral Characterization of The Ozonation Products of κ-Carrageenan

“…It comprises of repeating disaccharide units of alternating (1/3)-α-D-galactose-4 sulphate, (1/4)-β-3 and 6-anhydro-D-galactose residues [1][2][3][4]. The size or degree of polymerization of κ-carrageenan plays a critical role in determining their application.…”

Rheological properties and interactions between polysaccharides in mixed carrageenan solutions

“…Carrageenans are a group of sulphated galactan polysaccharides extracted from marine red algae [1], and the chemical structures are characterized by alternating 1,3-linked β-D-galactopyranose (G) and 1,4-linked 3,6-anhydro-α-D-galactopyranose (AG) residues. They are classified according to the content of the 3,6-anhydrogalactose on the (1→4)-linked residue, the position and the number of sulfate groups.…”