Carotenoids and Apocarotenoids in Planta: Their Role in Plant Development, Contribution to the Flavour and Aroma of Fruits and Flowers, and Their Nutraceutical Benefits

Abstract

Carotenoids and apocarotenoids are diverse classes of compounds found in nature and are important natural pigments, nutraceuticals and flavour/aroma molecules. Improving the quality of crops is important for providing micronutrients to remote communities where dietary variation is often limited. Carotenoids have also been shown to have a significant impact on a number of human diseases, improving the survival rates of some cancers and slowing the progression of neurological illnesses. Furthermore, carotenoid-derived compounds can impact the flavour and aroma of crops and vegetables and are the origin of important developmental, as well as plant resistance compounds required for defence. In this review, we discuss the current research being undertaken to increase carotenoid content in plants and research the benefits to human health and the role of carotenoid derived volatiles on flavour and aroma of fruits and vegetables.

Aroma Volatiles in Tomato Fruits: The Role of Genetic, Preharvest and Postharvest Factors

“…As a result of the degradation of carotenoids, their content is strongly correlated with the progression of tomato fruits' ripening, mainly due to the accumulation of lycopene, even if their production is not linear and their overall concentration remains low [31]. Although they are present in very low concentrations, they have a primary role in conferring floral/fruity notes to tomatoes and increasing product appreciation [10,46,47].…”

“…In ripe tomatoes, the cytosolic enzymes LeCCD1A and LeCCD1B perform an oxidative cleavage of multiple linear carotenoids, either at the 5,6, 7,8, or 9,10 positions, and cyclic carotenoids at the 9,10 position. This leads to the biosynthesis of dialdehydes and ketones, forming several C13 volatiles such as pseudoionone, β-ionone, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, β-damascenone and geranylacetone, which is reported to be generated by the oxidative cleavage of phytoene, phytofluene, ζ-carotene, and neurosporene [18,26,[47][48][49]. In tomatoes, the LeCCD1 cleavage of lycopene at the 5,6 position leads to 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, which is associated with the tomato-like flavour and sweet floral aroma of tomatoes [48,50].…”

Options for the generation of seedless cherry, the ultimate snacking product

“…The treatment with GA also influences the other hormonal pathways, since the treated ovaries showed a small but significant increase of IAA at 3 and 14 DAT, and a significant drop of ABA. Indeed, PbARF5, PbARF6, PbARF18, PbARF19-like , and Pb9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), which encode key enzymes in the steps for the synthesis of ABA (Schwartz et al 1997 , 2003 ; Simkin 2021 ), have been found to be down-regulated both in the GA 4+7 -treated and pollinated ovaries. Therefore, the model proposed by Liu and collaborators suggests that GA 4+7 mimics the effect that pollination has in changing the hormones levels, causing a downstream change of expression of gene involved in different aspects of the transition from ovary to fruit (Liu et al 2018 ) (Fig.…”

The Effect of Extraction Method on the Extract Yield in the Carotenoid Pigment Encapsulation for Halal Natural Pigment

“…Natural pigments can be derived from carotenoid group compounds abundant in plants. Carotenoids are found in chloroplasts and are responsible for the plant's aroma, flavor, and colors of yellow, bright red, and orange (Cazzonelli, 2011;Hermanns et al, 2020;Simkin, 2021). Carotenoids are soluble in a wide range of organic solvents, including alcohol group solvents (Kultys & Kurek, 2022;Saini & Keum, 2018).…”