“…However, patients are often recalcitrant to opioid therapy, can be denied treatment due to “opioidphobia”, or are over-treated. Recently, some critical peripheral and spinal mechanisms underlying pain have been recognized using humanized sickle mouse models (Cataldo et al, 2015, Hillery et al, 2011, Kohli et al, 2010, Valverde et al, 2016, Vincent et al, 2015). …”