Campylobacter, a zoonotic pathogen of global importance: Prevalence and risk factors in the fast-evolving chicken meat system of Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

Campylobacteriosis is a leading foodborne zoonosis worldwide, and is frequently associated with handling and consumption of poultry meat. Various studies indicate that Campylobacter causes a substantial human disease burden in low to middle-income countries, but data regarding the organism’s epidemiology in countries like Kenya are scarce. In sub-Saharan Africa, 3.8 million deaths of children under-5 years of age are reported annually. Of those, 25% are caused by diarrheal diseases, and Campylobacter is one of the most frequently isolated bacteria from diarrheic children. With the growth of urban conglomerates, such as Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, changes in diets, food production systems, and retailing dynamics, it is likely that exposure and susceptibility to this pathogen will change. Therefore, the importance of Campylobacter disease burden in Kenya may increase further. The objectives of this study were: 1) to determine the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in Nairobi’s small-scale chicken farms and meat retailers, and 2) to identify potential risk factors associated with its presence in those sites. The prevalence data provides the first detailed baseline for this pathogen in the urban Kenyan context. The risk factors provide context-specific insights for disease managers. A cross-sectional study of broiler, indigenous chicken farms, and chicken meat retailers, was conducted in a peri-urban, low to middle-income area (Dagoretti), and a very-low income informal settlement (Kibera) of Nairobi. Chicken faeces were collected using one pair of boot socks per farm, and 3 raw chicken meat samples were purchased per retailer. Samples were cultured for viable Campylobacter spp. using mCCDA, followed by blood agar plates in aerobic/microaerobic conditions for prevalence calculations. A questionnaire-based survey on sanitary, sourcing and selling practices was conducted at each site for risk factor identification using logistic regression analyses. A total of 171 farm premises and 53 retailers were sampled and interviewed. The prevalence results for Campylobacter spp. were between 33 to 44% for broiler and indigenous chicken farms, 60% and 64% for retailers, in Dagoretti and Kibera, respectively. Univariable logistic regression showed an association between Campylobacter spp. presence and the easiness of cleaning the display material used by the retailer. Restricting access to the flock was also associated with the pathogen’s presence. Multivariable logistic regression identified the selling of defrosted meat as a retailer risk factor (OR: 4.69; 95% CI: 1.31–19.97), calling for more investigation of the reported repetitive freezing-thawing processes and cold chain improvement options. At the farm-level, having a pen floor of material not easy to clean was found to increase the risk (OR: 2.31; 95%CI: 1.06–5.37). The relatively high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. across different areas and value chain nodes indicates a clear human exposure risk. The open nature of both small-scale broiler and indigenous chicken production...

Development of a Lyophilization Process for Campylobacter Bacteriophage Storage and Transport

“…The disease burden of Campylobacter in low-and middle-income countries is therefore either underestimated or unknown. In Kenya's capital Nairobi, Campylobacter is prevalent, with 33%-44% of broiler chicken from small farms and 60-64% retail chickens being positive [7]. Campylobacter infection in Kenya has the world's highest fatality rate of 8.8% (5/57) within children under 5 years old in hospitals [8].…”

Campylobacteriosis Agents in Meat Carcasses Collected from Two District Municipalities in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

“…Globally, Campylobacter infection is a significant zoonosis, considered to be the leading cause of bacterial foodborne infection [4]. This zoonotic infection is of great public health concern [5], with meats known as the major risk factor [6] due to consumption of undercooked poultry or red meats [7]. Worldwide,…”

Processing and retail strategies to minimizeCampylobactercontamination in retail chicken

“…Campylobacteriosis is the most common cause of bacterial enteritis and poses a serious health burden in Ireland and Europe (EFSA, 2017;Wagenaar, French, & Havelaar, 2013). Based on the reports of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Campylobacter is responsible for the majority of intestinal infectious diseases worldwide (Baker, Sneyd, & Wilson, 2007;Carron et al, 2018;Gabriel et al, 2010). However, due to underreporting, the true public incidence is estimated to be much higher than documented case numbers (Bolton, 2015;De Jong & Ekdahl, 2006;EFSA, 2010b;Hermans et al, 2012;Tam et al, 2012).…”

“…In an ideal world, an on-farm solution that prevents Campylobacter colonization of poultry flock would significantly reduce the incidence of fresh chicken contaminated with Campylobacter reaching the consumer. As things stand, however, the prevalence of Campylobacter in retail poultry remains high (Carron et al, 2018;Gonçalves-Tenório, Silva, Rodrigues, Cadavez, & Gonzales-Barron, 2018). The prevalence of Campylobacter in broiler carcasses identified at the retail level varied from 3.1% to 58.8%, depending on the Member State (Wieczorek, Szewczyk, & Osek, 2012).…”