Caffeine Sources and Consumption among Saudi Adults Living with Diabetes and Its Potential Effect on HbA1c

Abstract

Information regarding the spread and effect of coffee and caffeine intake by individuals with type II diabetes remains unclear. This study aims to identify the amount and sources of habitual caffeine intake by individuals with type II diabetes and to investigate its association with other health outcomes, especially HbA1c. This is a cross-sectional survey involving 100 people medically defined as having type II diabetes comprising both genders, recruited from a care centre. All participants completed a caffeine semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (C-FFQ) to estimate their caffeine consumption, a two day 24-h recall, and a detailed questionnaire. The average caffeine intake was calculated from all sources and the differences in mean by gender were tested using a regression model (adjusted to important confounders). Regression models were used to verify the association between average caffeine intake on HbA1c and other health outcomes with adjustment for important confounders. A p value < 0.05 represented statistical significance. Arabic coffee (gahwa) and tea were the most common sources of caffeine among Saudi adults living with diabetes. Average caffeine intake for the whole sample was 194 ± 165 mg/day, which is 2.3 ± 2 mg/kg. There was an inverse association between caffeine intake and age: difference in mean −3.26 mg/year (95%CI: −5.34, −1.18; p = 0.003). Males had significantly higher consumption of caffeine compared to females: difference in mean 90.7 mg/day (95%CI: 13.8, 167.6; p = 0.021). No association was found between average caffeine intake and HbA1C or any other cardiovascular risk factors. This information can help public health practitioners and policy makers when assessing the risk of caffeine consumption among this vulnerable group.

An Exploratory Study about the Characterization of Caffeine Consumption in a Portuguese Sample

“…Concerning caffeine consumption, coffee remains the primary source of caffeine intake, which corroborates the results in most European countries and the United States of America [ 7 , 19 , 21 , 22 ]. Approximately two billion coffee “express” are estimated to be consumed every day in the world [ 23 ]. Other caffeine sources consumed are sodas, energy drinks, tea, chocolate drinks, food (i.e., chocolate, yogurt, ice cream, candies, and baked food), food supplements, and over-the-counter drugs (although some products had little expression in the present study) [ 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 ].…”

Patterns of Caffeine Consumption in Western Province of Saudi Arabia

“…[15][16][17][18] A number of cross-sectional studies showed that females in Saudi Ariba prefer and consume more caffeine (mainly Arabic coffee) than males which is similar to our results where females represent (80%) of the participants. [14,16] On the other hand, undergraduate students represent most of the participants in our study (85%), and they may be at an increased risk of excessive caffeine consumption due to seeking On the other hand, the use energy drinks, consumed by 17% of participants in our study, has been increasing dramatically in the last two decades, and Saudi Arabia is not an exception. Companies are actively pushing advertising, sponsorship of sporting events and massive subsidies to retailers that sell them.…”

“…[12][13] Information regarding the spread of the different types of coffee and caffeinated products consumed by the Saudi population remains unclear. [14] This study aims to identify the amount and sources of caffeine consumed by the Saudi population and explore its relationship with the consumption patterns. This is to provide public health practitioners and dietitians with information on caffeine consumption, to help them understand the situation and make suitable recommendations for patients.…”

Beverage Consumption and Ulcerative Colitis: A Case-Control Study from Saudi Arabia

“…The Saudi population has unique dietary behaviors that are significantly different from those of Western and East-Asian populations. For example, the literature has shown a high prevalence of beverage consumption among Saudi people [ 16 , 17 , 18 ].…”