“…Furthermore, the recombinant protein only can induce low levels of immune responses in cattle, sheep, and goats. Maldonado et al infected bovine kidney cell lines with the BVDV-1 cytopathic strain CH001 (CpBVDV-1) and analyzed the expression of IFN-β, and found that CpBVDV-1 can induce a small amount of IFN-β production [ 41 ]. The CpBVDV-1 strain can induce the body to produce a small amount of IFN-β, and stimulate the expression and nuclear translocation of IRF-1 and IRF-7.…”
Section: Non-structural Proteinsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“… Fig. 2 Co-regulated transcriptional induction of IFN-β by IRFs and NF-кB during CpBVDV-1 infection [ 44 ]. P65 and p50 are subunits of NF-κB.…”
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) belongs to the family Flaviviridae genus pestivirus. The viral genome is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA that encodes four structural proteins (i.e., C, Erns, E1, and E2) and eight non-structural proteins (NSPs) (i.e., Npro, p7, NS2, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5A, and NS5B). Cattle infected with BVDV exhibit a number of different clinical signs including diarrhea, abortion, and other reproductive disorders which have a serious impact on the cattle industry worldwide. Research on BVDV mainly focuses on its structural protein, however, progress in understanding the functions of the NSPs of BVDV has also been made in recent decades. The knowledge gained on the BVDV non-structural proteins is helpful to more fully understand the viral replication process and the molecular mechanism of viral persistent infection. This review focuses on the functions of BVDV NSPs and provides references for the identification of BVDV, the diagnosis and prevention of Bovine viral diarrhea mucosal disease (BVD-MD), and the development of vaccines.
“…Furthermore, the recombinant protein only can induce low levels of immune responses in cattle, sheep, and goats. Maldonado et al infected bovine kidney cell lines with the BVDV-1 cytopathic strain CH001 (CpBVDV-1) and analyzed the expression of IFN-β, and found that CpBVDV-1 can induce a small amount of IFN-β production [ 41 ]. The CpBVDV-1 strain can induce the body to produce a small amount of IFN-β, and stimulate the expression and nuclear translocation of IRF-1 and IRF-7.…”
Section: Non-structural Proteinsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“… Fig. 2 Co-regulated transcriptional induction of IFN-β by IRFs and NF-кB during CpBVDV-1 infection [ 44 ]. P65 and p50 are subunits of NF-κB.…”
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) belongs to the family Flaviviridae genus pestivirus. The viral genome is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA that encodes four structural proteins (i.e., C, Erns, E1, and E2) and eight non-structural proteins (NSPs) (i.e., Npro, p7, NS2, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5A, and NS5B). Cattle infected with BVDV exhibit a number of different clinical signs including diarrhea, abortion, and other reproductive disorders which have a serious impact on the cattle industry worldwide. Research on BVDV mainly focuses on its structural protein, however, progress in understanding the functions of the NSPs of BVDV has also been made in recent decades. The knowledge gained on the BVDV non-structural proteins is helpful to more fully understand the viral replication process and the molecular mechanism of viral persistent infection. This review focuses on the functions of BVDV NSPs and provides references for the identification of BVDV, the diagnosis and prevention of Bovine viral diarrhea mucosal disease (BVD-MD), and the development of vaccines.
“…Several studies investigated the impact of the virus biotype on the course of the immune response against BVDVs. Comparative analysis of the immune response to the NCP and CP biotypes of BVDV suggests a higher potential for NCP-BVDV to induce humoral immunity, while infection with CP-BVDV resulted in a better cell-mediated immunity (88, 109,110).…”
Section: Bvdv-induced Immune Response and Immune Dysfunctionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Several studies have been recently conducted to identify the mechanisms behind BVDV-induced immune dysregulation (110)(111)(112)(113)(114). BVDV-induced immunosuppression has been identified in naturally infected animals, with both transient or persistent infection, as well as after experimental BVDV infection (103).…”
Section: Bvdv-induced Immune Response and Immune Dysfunctionmentioning
The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) consists of two species and various subspecies of closely related viruses of varying antigenicity, cytopathology, and virulence-induced pathogenesis. Despite the great ongoing efforts to control and prevent BVDV outbreaks and the emergence of new variants, outbreaks still reported throughout the world. In this review, we are focusing on the molecular biology of BVDV, its molecular pathogenesis, and the immune response of the host against the viral infection. Special attention was paid to discuss some immune evasion strategies adopted by the BVDV to hijack the host immune system to ensure the success of virus replication. Vaccination is one of the main strategies for prophylaxis and contributes to the control and eradication of many viral diseases including BVDV. We discussed the recent advances of various types of currently available classical and modern BVDV vaccines. However, with the emergence of new strains and variants of the virus, it is urgent to find some other novel targets for BVDV vaccines that may overcome the drawbacks of some of the currently used vaccines. Effective vaccination strategy mainly based on the preparation of vaccines from the homologous circulating strains. The BVDV-E2 protein plays important role in viral infection and pathogenesis. We mapped some important potential neutralizing epitopes among some BVDV genomes especially the E2 protein. These novel epitopes could be promising targets against the currently circulating strains of BVDV. More research is needed to further explore the actual roles of these epitopes as novel targets for the development of novel vaccines against BVDV. These potential vaccines may contribute to the global eradication campaign of the BVDV.
“…Brain damage is mainly manifested in cattle by neurological symptoms, inflammation, and eventually memory and cognitive impairment [ 10 , 11 ]. This results in a decline in fecundity and milk production in dairy cows, leading to incalculable losses in the dairy industry [ 12 , 13 ].…”
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a pathogen associated with substantial economic losses in the dairy cattle industry. Currently, there are no effective vaccines against BVDV. Melatonin (MT) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-viral properties, and the use of MF59 in vaccines significantly enhances vaccine efficiency. Here, MT and MF59 were added into the Erns-LTB vaccine. Subsequently, their inhibitory activity on the NF-κB signaling pathway in Mardin-Darby Bovine Kidney cells and the hippocampus was assessed using western blot and quantitative reverse transcription PCR. The findings revealed that MT in the Erns-LTB vaccine decreases the phosphorylation of p65 proteins caused by BVDV infection. In addition, MT decreased the mRNA levels of IL-1β and IL-6 in vitro, but increased the production of IFN-α, IFN-β, Mx1 in vitro, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, cyclic amp response element-binding protein, and the stem cell factor in vivo. Furthermore, treatment with Erns-LTB + MF59 + MT stimulated the production of T lymphocytes, alleviated pathological damage, decreased expressions of BVDV antigen, and tight junction proteins in mice. These findings imply that MT has potential for use in the Erns-LTB vaccine to inhibit BVDV infection and regulate the immune responses of T-cells by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway.
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