Bureaucratic conflict between transnational actor coalitions: The diffusion of British National Vocational Qualifications to China

Abstract

Quantitative studies of social policy diffusion face substantial challenges regarding their understanding of causal mechanisms. Knowledge of diffusion processes is particularly limited in authoritarian countries, in comparatively autonomous developing countries, and fields of social policy not characterized by hegemonic ideas and strong epistemic communities. This study focuses on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in the People's Republic of China. The conceptual approach is based on the interaction‐oriented understanding of causal mechanisms in actor‐centred institutionalism, and the framework of lesson drawing. Methodologically, this study follows a process tracing approach, relying on semi‐structured interviews with Chinese experts, recently de‐classified project reports of the World Bank, and content analysis of Chinese legal and regulatory documents. Analysing why China introduced a system of vocational qualification certificates similar to English National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), rather than German‐style dual vocational apprenticeships, it uncovers a mechanism of bureaucratic conflict between competing coalitions of domestic ministries and transnational actors from the UK and Germany in a context of organizational hierarchy with multiple principals. The World Bank here attempted to play the role of a neutral international principal, but could only do so in limited ways and insofar as its preferences were compatible with those of the leadership core of the Party‐state. The study illustrates how bureaucratic conflict mediates policy learning, explaining the diffusion and non‐diffusion of different policy options. Furthermore, it highlights doubts regarding the mechanism of coercion, which remained largely ineffective.

Crossing the River by Touching the Stones:

“…These reforms opened a window of opportunity to create a unified national qualifications system to replace the traditional system of vocational certification by line ministries. However, the central government has not adopted an encompassing national qualifications framework, due to bureaucratic conflicts between the education ministry and labor ministry (Müller 2021). In recent years, the intention has been to harmonize the two separate qualifications systems.…”

“…The state started to search for new policy options for TVET sector reform, including feasible models abroad (Thøgersen 1990). The Education Commission intended to borrow Germany's dual system of apprenticeship training, while the Ministry of Labor was inclined to learn from the British National Vocational Qualifications system (Müller 2021). Both ministries formed their transnational actor coalitions with international partners.…”

“…Education Commission, and subsequently toward the Ministry of Labor developing its own system leaning toward British national vocational qualifications (Müller 2021). The new system expanded very quickly.…”

“…In 1993, the PRC Ministry of Labor then entered cooperation with the British Council and the Cultural and Education Section of the British Embassy. The new National Vocational Qualifications system was made concrete in 1994 when the Ministry of Labor and Ministry of Personnel issued regulations for a joint administrative framework for professional and vocational qualification certificates (Müller 2021) 24 Interview with a former vice minister of education, 10 August 2020. 25 Footnote 25.…”

“…The project helped set a methodological standard for developing occupational standards and test questions in the PRC. Following this methodological standard, various sector ministries issued their own standards in cooperation with the Occupational Skills and Testing Authority and produced more than 104 standards and standardized test questions for 49 standards by 2005(Müller 2021). During labor market liberalization in the 1980s and 1990s, the government considered two options for vocational qualification: the German Dual System of Apprenticeship training, endorsed by the Education Commission and Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, the German government's implementing agency for technical development and cooperation; and the British National Vocational Qualifications, sponsored by Ministry of Labor, the British Embassy, and the British Council.…”