“…Most GCM-based studies are initialized with a certain amount of smoke loading at a specified injection height, based on the size and number of weapons considered. These altitudes are often informed by observations from mass fires, such as in Hamburg during the second world war, or on 1980's simulations using mesoscale models that were driven by energy release rates (Penner et al, 1986;Small & Heikes, 1988;Turco et al, 1990). Using this method, Robock, Oman, Stenchikov, Toon, et al (2007), Toon et al (2007), Toon et al (2008), and Coupe et al (2019) found that, given an exchange with the strategic weapons allowed under treaties between the U.S. and Russia, a nuclear winter is a possible outcome.…”