Bridging Differences in Cohort Analyses of the Relationship between Secondhand Smoke Exposure during Pregnancy and Birth Weight: The Transportability Framework in the ECHO Program

Abstract

Background: Estimates for the effects of environmental exposures on health outcomes, including secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure, often present considerable variability across studies. Knowledge of the reasons behind these differences can aid our understanding of effects in specific populations as well as inform practices of combining data from multiple studies. Objectives: This study aimed to assess the presence of effect modification by measured sociodemographic characteristics on the effect of SHS exposure during pregnancy on birth weights that may drive differences observed across cohorts. We also aimed to quantify the extent to which differences in the cohort mean effects observed across cohorts in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) consortium are due to differing distributions of these characteristics. Methods: We assessed the presence of effect modification and transportability of effect estimates across five ECHO cohorts in a total of 6,771 mother–offspring dyads. We assessed the presence of effect modification via gradient boosting of regression trees based on the H-statistic. We estimated individual cohort effects using linear models and targeted maximum likelihood estimation (TMLE). We then estimated transported effects from one cohort to each of the remaining cohorts using a robust nonparametric estimation approach relying on TMLE estimators and compared them to the original effect estimates for these cohorts. Results: Observed effect estimates varied across the five cohorts, ranging from significantly lower birth weight associated with exposure [ ; 95% confidence interval (CI): , ] to higher birth weight with wide CIs, including the null ( ; 95% CI: , 99.8). Transported effect estimates only minimally explained differences in the point estimates for two out of the four cohort pairs. Discussion: Our findings of weak to moderate evidence of effect modification and transportability indicate that unmeasured individual-level and contextual factors and sources of bias may be responsible for differences in the effect estimates observed across ECHO cohorts. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13961