Breast cancer development and progression: Risk factors, cancer stem cells, signaling pathways, genomics, and molecular pathogenesis

Abstract

As the most commonly occurring cancer in women worldwide, breast cancer poses a formidable public health challenge on a global scale. Breast cancer consists of a group of biologically and molecularly heterogeneous diseases originated from the breast. While the risk factors associated with this cancer varies with respect to other cancers, genetic predisposition, most notably mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene, is an important causative factor for this malignancy. Breast cancers can begin in different areas of the breast, such as the ducts, the lobules, or the tissue in between. Within the large group of diverse breast carcinomas, there are various denoted types of breast cancer based on their invasiveness relative to the primary tumor sites. It is important to distinguish between the various subtypes because they have different prognoses and treatment implications. As there are remarkable parallels between normal development and breast cancer progression at the molecular level, it has been postulated that breast cancer may be derived from mammary cancer stem cells. Normal breast development and mammary stem cells are regulated by several signaling pathways, such as estrogen receptors (ERs), HER2, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways, which control stem cell proliferation, cell death, cell differentiation, and cell motility. Furthermore, emerging evidence indicates that epigenetic regulations and noncoding RNAs may play important roles in breast cancer development and may contribute to the heterogeneity and metastatic aspects of breast cancer, especially for triple-negative breast cancer. This review provides a comprehensive survey of the molecular, cellular and genetic aspects of breast cancer.

The Association Between Ultrasound Features and Biological Properties of Invasive Breast Carcinoma Is Modified by Age, Tumor Size, and the Preoperative Axilla Status

“…Breast cancer is a complex disease with varied therapeutic responses and clinical outcomes due to its heterogeneity . Current clinical practice for breast cancer management is generally based on histologic and molecular criteria .…”

Risk factors related to breast cancer development

“…Risk factors for breast cancer incidence include the ones classified as modifiable and non modifiable 7,8 . Modifiable factors are those in which a direct or indirect action becomes possible to minimize the risk of development of the disease, such as obesity, sedentarism, alcohol and 0tobacco consumption, in addition to the use of hormone replacement therapy and, more recently, the administration of hormones with the objective of gender transitioning has been discussed 9 .…”

“…It is known by the scientific community that certain aspects directly or indirectly affect the progression of breast cancer, the so-called risk factors 7,8 .…”

Alternative Treatments for Cancer Prevention and Cure [Part 1]

“…Women with breast cancer had a higher risk of developing new comorbidities than women without cancer [306]. stressful life [310], urban living, mastectomy [311], lower socioeconomic status [309,312], genetic predisposition, African-American origin, not having children or breastfeeding, early menstruation/late menopause, obesity, alcohol abuse, HRT after menopause, benign breast conditions or having breast proliferation, using contraceptives and exposure to diethylstilbestrol [313], age between 40-60, late age first pregnancy, smoking [314], abortion history [315] are the associated factors. Distressingly, the 5-year cumulative mortality remains unacceptably high at 50%, primarily due to a late-stage presentation [316].…”