Boys’ toys, girls’ toys: An fMRI study of mothers’ neural responses to children violating gender expectations

A neurocognitive approach to studying processes underlying parents’ gender socialization

“…The temporal pole is presumed to be critical for linking person-specific memories to faces (Olson et al, 2013) and might therefore also play a role in the memories of gender-typical and atypical behavior that parents link to their child's face. When examining the neural processing of gender stereotypes in mothers of young children, both the dmPFC and the ACC have shown larger BOLD changes pictures of children combined with stereotype-incongruent toy words (Endendijk et al, 2019a). The elevated ACC activity was also associated with stronger gender stereotypes in mothers, most likely reflecting the ACC's role in conflict monitoring.…”

“…Implicit Association Tests (e.g., Endendijk et al, 2017) Self-report questionnaires (e.g., Friedman et al, 2007) Internal motivation for parenting without gender stereotypes Self-report questionnaire assessing internal motivation regarding parenting own son(s) and/or daughter(s) (e.g., Endendijk et al, 2019a) Conflict resolution Mouse-tracking paradigm (e.g., Hehman et al, 2014a) Gender attributions Scenarios, vignettes, pictures (e.g., Morrongiello and Hogg, 2004) Gender identity Self-report questionnaire (e.g., Dinella et al, 2014) Intergroup attitudes Implicit Association Tasks (e.g., Rudman and Goodwin, 2004) Self-reported evaluations of gender ingroup and outgroup (e.g., Rudman and Goodwin, 2004) Neural processes to examine why some parents are more or less likely to employ gender socialization practices than others. Moreover, several factors that are highlighted in this study might provide useful targets for parenting interventions or psycho-education aimed at increasing gender equality in future generations.…”

“…In order to study this factor in a gender socialization context some adaptation might be needed, for instance by conceptualizing it as parents’ motivation for parenting without gender stereotypes. A recent study in parents found that mothers’ internal motivation to behave without gender stereotypes appeared unrelated to how mothers’ evaluated preschool boys’ and girls’ stereotypical and counter-stereotypical toy play ( Endendijk et al, 2019a ). However, both the internal motivation measure as well as the toy-play evaluation measure concerned boys and girls in general, and not mothers’ own sons and daughters ( Endendijk et al, 2019a ).…”

“…A recent study in parents found that mothers’ internal motivation to behave without gender stereotypes appeared unrelated to how mothers’ evaluated preschool boys’ and girls’ stereotypical and counter-stereotypical toy play ( Endendijk et al, 2019a ). However, both the internal motivation measure as well as the toy-play evaluation measure concerned boys and girls in general, and not mothers’ own sons and daughters ( Endendijk et al, 2019a ). It may be more relevant to measure if parents’ internal motivations for parenting without gender stereotypes is related to gender socialization practices with their sons and daughters.…”

“…These studies examined whether neural responses differed between trials in which words/pictures had to be categorized in a way that was consistent with social expectations and trials in which words/pictures had to be categorized in a way that violated social expectations. Second, other studies used passive viewing paradigms (e.g., Endendijk et al, 2019a ). In such paradigms, participants were asked to look and form impressions of pictures showing people violating social expectations or people confirming social expectations.…”