Bone mineral density and body composition in elite female golf and netball players

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare bone density and body composition measurements in women participating in elitelevel netball and golf, two sports with contrasting loading characteristics. Bone mineral density (BMD) and body composition were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in 14 state-level netball players (20.893.4 years), 11 single-digit handicap golf players (22.492.1 years) and a control group (n 018) not training for sport (22.693.6 years). Trunk extensor endurance and grip strength were also measured using the Sorensen test and hand-grip dynamometry respectively. Netball players had significantly higher total body, lumbar spine and hip BMD than the golf players (P B 0.001) and control subjects (P B 0.001). The golf players had higher BMD than the control subjects only in the lumbar spine (P B 0.05). The netball players were significantly taller than the golf players and control group (P B 0.01) and had a higher body mass than the control group (P B 0.001). After adjustment for body height and mass, the BMD values in the netball players remained significantly higher than the control subjects at all sites (P B 0.01), while the golf players had significantly higher lumbar spine BMD than the controls (P B 0.05). Elite-level netball participation is associated with increased total body, hip and lumbar spine BMD, while this response was only evident in the lumbar spine in elite golf players. The contrasting loading characteristics of these sports may be reflected in the site-specific differences in BMD when compared to non-athletic control subjects.

Body composition in professional female netball players within and between seasons: a cohort study

“…Similar changes in bone mass and bone mineral density have been shown for collegiate female basketball and volleyball players [31]. These results indicate that highly trained female netballers can increase and maintain bone mineral density with adequate mechanical loading well after puberty when skeletal bone is most responsive, albeit by only negligible amounts [30]. It is interesting to note that the bone mineral density of the participant cohort was higher than values reported for male rugby league players [29], and collegiate female basketball and volleyball players [31] emphasising the regular, high-strain mechanical loading that these athletes experience in training and competition [30,33].…”

“…The absence of an inseason detraining effect in this study's participant cohort might be explained by the short competition period or shorter time-course of altered hormonal and physical states following match-play. Regardless, the increase in bone mineral density in the participant cohort at the end of the competitive season suggests netball players are exposed to a large amount of mechanical loading in training and competition that induces an adaptive bone response [30]. This finding is like research in collision and court-based team sport and supports to some extent the prescription of modified in-season training loads to promote recovery between competition [29,31].…”

“…These results indicate that highly trained female netballers can increase and maintain bone mineral density with adequate mechanical loading well after puberty when skeletal bone is most responsive, albeit by only negligible amounts [30]. It is interesting to note that the bone mineral density of the participant cohort was higher than values reported for male rugby league players [29], and collegiate female basketball and volleyball players [31] emphasising the regular, high-strain mechanical loading that these athletes experience in training and competition [30,33]. Monitoring the development and maintenance of bone in netball athletes, particularly on return from extended rest due to injury, might be important given the decline in bone mineral density with periods of inactivity and the incidence of ankle and foot fractures in netball [34][35][36].…”

Frequency-effect of playing screen golf on body composition and golf performance in middle-aged men

“…While golf is generally less physically demanding than most sports, the golf swings generate very high loading of the lumbar spine over a short duration, due to high trunk rotation velocities and trunk muscle contraction forces ( Dorado et al, 2002 ; Myers et al, 2008 ). In the related above researches, Chang et al (2013) reported that the lumbar spine BMD was 6.7% higher in the golf players than in the control subjects. The repetitive short-duration and the high intensity spinal loading associated with the golf swings may produce the bone stain stimuli required to promote the osteoblastic activity ( Burr et al, 2002 ; Robling et al, 2002 ).…”

The interactions of physical activity, exercise and genetics and their associations with bone mineral density: implications for injury risk in elite athletes

“…3–22% higher BMD in high-impact sports compared to medium- or low-impact sportsTorstveit and Sundgot-Borgen (2005)15 elite male athletes15 non-athletic controlsVolleyball14% and 24% higher BMD at the lumbar spine and femoral neck, respectively, in volleyball players in comparison with non-athletic controlsCalbet et al (1999)14 state-level female athletes18 non-athletic controlsNetball7.8%, 17.3% and 14% higher total body, hip and lumbar spine BMD in the netballers in comparison with the controlsChang et al (2013)50 male highly trained athletes12 non-athletic controls12 judokas14 karate athletes24 water polo playersControl group total body BMD (1.27 g/cm 2 ) was significantly lower than the judo (1.40 g/cm 2 ) and karate (1.36 g/cm 2 ) group but no different to the water polo athletes (1.31 g/cm 2 )Andreoli et al (2001)59 competitive Finnish female athletes25 physical active individuals25 sedentary individuals27 dancers18 squash players14 speed skatersSquash players had significantly higher BMD at the lumbar spine (13%), femoral neck (16.8%), proximal tibia (12.6%) and calcaneus (18.5%) in comparison with the sedentary group. Aerobic dancers also had significantly higher BMD at the loaded sites in comparison with the sedentary group, ranging from 5.3 to 13.5%Heinonen et al (1995)60 athletes15 non-athletic controls15 runners15 swimmers15 triathletes15 cyclistsRunners had significantly higher total body, femoral neck and leg BMD than controls and swimmers as well as higher leg BMD than cyclistsDuncan et al (2002) …”