Black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) activity, foraging and seed dispersal patterns in shaded cocoa plantations versus rainforest in southern Mexico

Abstract

Recent evidence has shown that primates worldwide use agroecosystems as temporary or permanent habitats. Detailed information on how these primates are using these systems is scant, and yet their role as seed dispersers is often implied. The main objective of this study was to compare the activity, foraging patterns and seed dispersal role of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) inhabiting shaded cocoa plantations and rainforest in southern Chiapas, Mexico. We gathered data on three monkey groups living in shaded cocoa plantations and three groups living in rainforest, using focal sampling, and collecting fecal samples. General activity and foraging patterns were similar in both habitats, with the exception that monkeys in the cocoa habitat spent more time feeding on petioles. Monkeys in shaded cocoa plantations dispersed 51,369 seeds (4% were seeds ≥3 mm width) of 16 plant species. Monkeys in the rainforest dispersed 6,536 seeds (78% were seeds ≥3 mm width) of 13 plant species. Our data suggest that the difference between habitats in the proportion of large versus small seeds dispersed reflects differences in fruit species abundance and availability in cocoa versus forest. Mean seed dispersal distances were statistically similar in both habitats (cocoa = 149 m, forest = 86 m). We conclude that the studied cocoa plantations provide all elements necessary to constitute a long-term permanent habitat for black howler monkeys. In turn, howler monkeys living in these plantations are able to maintain their functional role as seed dispersers for those native tree and liana species present within their areas of activities.

Forest loss and matrix composition are the major drivers shaping dung beetle assemblages in a fragmented rainforest

“…For example, shade cocoa plantations under rustic management in the study region have proven to be good habitat for dung beetles (C. Santos-Heredia unpubl. data) and other animal groups (e.g., primates: Zárate et al 2014). Overall, three attributes related to forest loss and to landscape composition (size of forest fragments, the amount of forest cover in the landscape, and the amount of open area in the matrix), seem to be acting interdependently to determine the structure and composition of the dung beetle assemblages in the Lacandona rainforest.…”

Ecological Flexibility as Measured by the Use of Pioneer and Exotic Plants by Two Lemurids: Eulemur collaris and Hapalemur meridionalis

“…Secondary growth may produce foods of higher dietary quality compared to foods available in mature forests, thus making folivorous (i.e., leaf-eating) primates less affected by habitat degradation (Chapman et al 2002;Ganzhorn 1995;Ganzhorn et al 1999b;Plumptre and Reynolds 1994). For example, populations of folivorous black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya and A. pigra), have been documented to use and rely heavily on fast-growing, exotic plant species (e.g., Eucalyptus and shaded cocoa plantations) for both occasional food and resting/sleeping within fragmented, anthropogenic landscapes (Bicca-Marques and Calegaro-Marques 1994;Bonilla-Sánchez et al 2012;Zárate et al 2014). Similarly, black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) appear to do well in some disturbed (i.e., previously logged) habitats Tutin et al 1997b).…”

Agroecosystems and primate conservation: Shade coffee as potential habitat for the conservation of Andean night monkeys in the northern Andes

“…For example, Estrada et al (2012) proposed that given the high ecological demands of spider monkeys and their reliance on ripe fruit in their diets , they tend to use agroecosystems in a more temporal way than howler monkeys that can rely more heavily on leaves, which are more readily available in these habitats. These large ateline primates have been studied in some of the most widely distributed agroecosystems: shade coffee and cacao plantations (McCann et al, 2003;Muñoz et al, 2006;Zarate et al, 2014). Many other platyrhines that have also been recorded using agroecosystems include Lagothrix, Cebus, Sapajus, Saimiri and Leontopithecus (Table 1 in Estrada et al, 2012).…”

“…Intensive agroecosystems that completely replace native biodiversity leave almost no viability for local fauna and flora. Nonetheless, intermediate agricultural interventions, such as agroforestry, have been shown to play an important role for the conservation of birds and mammals while simultaneously providing farmers with economic alternatives (e.g., food or fuel) and ecological services (Caudill et al, 2014;Jha et al, 2011;Perfecto and Vandermeer, 2008;Pimentel et al, 1992;Vandermeer, 2003;Zarate et al, 2014). Although there is an urgent need to preserve and protect the remaining natural ecosystems, agroecosystems may provide a complementary and successful conservation alternative to be implemented in buffer areas near pristine habitats or within previously intervened habitats .…”