Black Ginseng and Its Saponins: Preparation, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Effects

Abstract

Black ginseng is a type of processed ginseng that is prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming and drying several times. This process causes extensive changes in types and amounts of secondary metabolites. The chief secondary metabolites in ginseng are ginsenosides (dammarane-type triterpene saponins), which transform into less polar ginsenosides in black ginseng by steaming. In addition, apparent changes happen to other secondary metabolites such as the increase in the contents of phenolic compounds, reducing sugars and acidic polysaccharides in addition to the decrease in concentrations of free amino acids and total polysaccharides. Furthermore, the presence of some Maillard reaction products like maltol was also engaged. These obvious chemical changes were associated with a noticeable superiority for black ginseng over white and red ginseng in most of the comparative biological studies. This review article is an attempt to illustrate different methods of preparation of black ginseng, major chemical changes of saponins and other constituents after steaming as well as the reported biological activities of black ginseng, its major saponins and other metabolites.

Ginsenoside Compound K: Insights into Recent Studies on Pharmacokinetics and Health-Promoting Activities

“…The promising anti-cancer activity CK has been previously identified in various types of cell lines, including lung carcinoma, leukemia, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, gastric carcinoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma and pulmonary adenocarcinoma [ 11 , 74 ]. Among recent findings ( Table 4 ), a study documented the suppressing effect of CK on COX-2 and Arg-1 genes linked to immunosuppression, apoptosis, and pro-inflammatory cytokines production by myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) from the xenografted colorectal (CT26) cancer mice.…”

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Korean Black Ginseng Extract through ER Stress Pathway

“…We analyzed the composition of black ginseng in the previously published paper and showed compositions and amount of ginsenosides in the leaf and roots of BG (Rg1, Re, Rf, Rh1 (S and R), Rh2 (S and R), Rb1, Rc, F1, Rb2, Rb3, F2, Rg3 (S and R), PPT (S and R), K, Rh2 (S and R), PPD and total ginsenosides) [ 16 , 17 ]. In this study, to evaluate the cytotoxicity of BG, WST analysis was performed on wt MEF cells and human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells.…”

“…Black ginseng (BG) is a new style of processed ginseng manufactured from white ginseng with nine steaming cycles, which turns the ginseng black in color. It has been reported that a frequent heatingimproves antioxidant activity [ 16 ]. BG has been found to contain relatively lower polar ginsenosides compared to the white and red ginseng, and 19 ginsenosides were discovered such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg6, F4, Rk3, Rh4, 20(S)-, 20(R)-Rg3, 20(S)-, 20(R)-Rs3, Rk1, Rg5, Rs4 and Rs5 using high performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light scattering detector (HPLC-ELSD), Our previous study confirmed and identified composition and amounts of ginsenosides of BG, such as Rg1, Re, Rf, Rh1(S and R), Rh2 (S and R), Rb1, Rc, F1, Rb2, Rb3, F2, Rg3 (S and R), PPT (S and R), K, Rh2 (S and R), PPD and total ginsenosides in the leaf and roots.…”

Attitudes towards ‘superfood’ depending on the risk of orthorexia among students in Poland and The Netherlands

“…In addition, it modulates appetite, reduces fat accumulation in white adipose tissue. It can support Alzheimer's disease and protect the liver [30,31,32]. From the meet-analysis of Bach et al, it appears that although ginseng can effectively reduce fatigue, it does not increase physical performance [33].…”