Bisphenol A in surface waters in Germany: Part I. Reassessment of sources and emissions pathways for FlowEQ modeling

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) enters the environment through various industrial and consumer‐related pathways. Industrial sources include BPA manufacturing and secondary industrial uses such as the manufacturing of polymers and other substances based on or containing BPA. However, secondary sources and emissions to the environment, such as those related to the consumer use of articles containing BPA, may be more important than industrial emissions. Although readily biodegradable, BPA is widely distributed in various environmental compartments and living organisms. It is still not well understood which specific sources and pathways are responsible for releasing BPA into the environment. Therefore, we developed FlowEQ, a coupled flow network and fugacity‐based fate and transport model for the assessment of BPA in surface water. The work is divided into two parts. In Part I, inputs needed to support the modeling and model validation were collected. Bisphenol A was measured at 23 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and 21 landfills in Germany. In addition, the BPA content of 132 consumer articles from 27 article classes was analyzed. Bisphenol A concentrations in WWTPs ranged from 0.33 to 910 µg L−1 in influents and from less than 0.01 to 0.65 µg L−1 in effluents, resulting in removal efficiencies of 13%–100%. Average BPA concentrations in landfill leachate ranged from less than 0.01 to approximately 1400 µg L−1. Bisphenol A concentrations measured in consumer articles varied significantly by type, ranging from less than 0.5 µg kg−1 in printing inks up to 1 691 700 µg kg−1 in articles made from recycled polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These concentrations were combined with information on use, leaching, and contact with water to develop estimates of loadings. Together with the results of the FlowEQ modeling presented in Part II, this assessment improves our understanding of the sources and emission pathways of BPA in surface water. The model considers various sources of BPA and can estimate future surface water concentrations of BPA based on changes in use. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;00:1–15. © 2023 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Bisphenol A in German watersheds: Part II. FlowEQ model‐based characterization of sources and current and future conditions

“…In addition to defining environmental characteristics, fugacity-based models require detailed information regarding the emissions of BPA to each coordination area for the different emissions pathways (Citra, 2004;Mackay, Guiardo, Paterson, Kicks, et al, 1996;Mackay et al, 1992). Bisphenol A emissions sources and loadings to FlowEQ are described in detail in Tappert et al (2023) and Supporting Information: Emission Sources. For the purpose of this assessment, emissions were classified into the following categories: Primary manufacturing.…”

“…Bisphenol A was used in the production of thermal paper, which is commonly used for point-of-sale receipts. As of 2 January 2020, BPA cannot be legally placed on the market in the EU in thermal paper at concentrations greater than or equal to 0.02% by weight, compared with an estimated concentration of 1.39% prior to this regulation (Tappert et al, 2023). Thus, thermal paper manufacturing emissions to air and water are assumed to be negligible.…”

“…For example, recycled PVC liners and foils are often installed outdoors, and the BPA could leach from the article and enter surface water via stormwater runoff. The derivation of the BPA leached from consumer products and per capita loadings is described in detail in Tappert et al (2023) and in Supporting Information: Emission Sources-Consumer Use. Briefly, BPA loadings to surface water and wastewater from the consumer use of articles were calculated using concentrations in articles, annual article usage, fraction of BPA leached to water, and the population of Germany.…”

“…The per capita loadings calculated in Tappert et al (2023) were translated to coordination area-specific loadings using coordination area-specific populations presented in Supporting Information: Table SI-2. It is conservatively assumed that BPA leached from outdoor usage of BPA-containing articles directly enters the environment without wastewater treatment and/or BPA removal.…”

“…Bisphenol A may enter the environment through various industrial and consumer-related pathways (Cousins et al, 2002;Tappert et al, 2023). For the industrial pathways, BPA may enter the environment during the manufacturing of BPA or through secondary industrial uses such as the manufacturing of polymers and other substances based on or containing BPA or the application of BPA-containing coatings.…”