Biosynthesis and Toxicological Effects of Patulin

Abstract

Patulin is a toxic chemical contaminant produced by several species of mold, especially within Aspergillus, Penicillium and Byssochlamys. It is the most common mycotoxin found in apples and apple-derived products such as juice, cider, compotes and other food intended for young children. Exposure to this mycotoxin is associated with immunological, neurological and gastrointestinal outcomes. Assessment of the health risks due to patulin consumption by humans has led many countries to regulate the quantity in food. A full understanding of the molecular genetics of patulin biosynthesis is incomplete, unlike other regulated mycotoxins (aflatoxins, trichothecenes and fumonisins), although the chemical structures of patulin precursors are now known. The biosynthetic pathway consists of approximately 10 steps, as suggested by biochemical studies. Recently, a cluster of 15 genes involved in patulin biosynthesis was reported, containing characterized enzymes, a regulation factor and transporter genes. This review includes information on the current understanding of the mechanisms of patulin toxinogenesis and summarizes its toxicological effects.

The Mycotoxin Patulin Decreases Expression of Density-Enhanced Phosphatase-1 by Down-Regulating PPAR<i>γ</i> in Human Colon Cancer Cells

“…The mutagenicity (Pfeiffer et al 1998;de Melo et al 2012), embryotoxicity (Roll et al 1990;Wu et al 2005), and carcinogenicity (Dickens and Jones 1961) of patulin have also been reported. In addition, it is highly reactive towards the thiol groups of proteins and glutathione (Puel et al 2010). Symptoms of acute toxicity caused by patulin are bleeding from the digestive tract, diarrhea, and brain edema.…”

A critical review of producers of small lactone mycotoxins: patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin

“…The biosynthesis of patulin, starting from 6-methyl salicylic acid is well known (Barad et al, 2016c;Birch et al, 1955;Bu'Lock and Ryan 1958;Dimroth et al, 1976;Forrester and Gaucher, 1972a,b;Priest, 1989;Puel et al, 2010;Scott et al, 1971Scott et al, , 1972Sekiguchi, 1983;Sekiguchi and Gaucher, 1978;Tanenbaum and Bassett, 1959), and the gene cluster for patulin has been found in different producing filamentous fungi (Ballester et al, 2015;Barad et al, 2016c;Dombrink-Kurtzman, 2007;Li et al, 2015;Nielsen et al, 2017;Puel et al, 2010;Snini et al, 2014;Tannous et al, 2014). The role of patulin itself in the fruit infection process has not been fully elucidated (Barad et al, 2016a,b), but it has been suggested that accumulation of both gluconic acid and patulin (Barad et al, 2012(Barad et al, , 2014(Barad et al, , 2016aSnini et al, 2015) will make Penicillium expansum a more aggressive post-harvest pathogen.…”

“…Small toxic lactones, especially patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin are recognised mycotoxins (Bemi, 2004;Ciegler et al, 1971;Gaucher, 1979;McKinley and Carlton, 1991;Moake et al, 2005;Puel et al, 2010;Schütt et al, 1998;Scott, 1974;Wilson, 1976), even though only patulin is under regulation (EC, 2003). They share some properties apart from being toxic and having some structural similarities.…”

Mykotoxine in Lebensmitteln

“…ochraceus, A. carbonarius, P. verrucosum, P. nordicum Nierentoxisch, gentoxisch, kanzerogen [28,30] Patulin Penicillium spp, Aspergillus spp., Byssochlamis spp Läsionen in G. I.-Trakt und Niere; gentoxisch [35] T-2/-HT-2-Toxin Typ A Trichothecene…”

“…Neuere Studien zur Biosynthese und Toxizität von PAT und zum gentoxischen Mechanismus fassen andere Artikel zusammen [35,36]. …”