Biophysical Approaches for Applying and Measuring Biological Forces

Abstract

Over the past decades, increasing evidence has indicated that mechanical loads can regulate the morphogenesis, proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of living cells. Investigations of how cells sense mechanical stimuli or the mechanotransduction mechanism is an active field of biomaterials and biophysics. Gaining a further understanding of mechanical regulation and depicting the mechanotransduction network inside cells require advanced experimental techniques and new theories. In this review, the fundamental principles of various experimental approaches that have been developed to characterize various types and magnitudes of forces experienced at the cellular and subcellular levels are summarized. The broad applications of these techniques are introduced with an emphasis on the difficulties in implementing these techniques in special biological systems. The advantages and disadvantages of each technique are discussed, which can guide readers to choose the most suitable technique for their questions. A perspective on future directions in this field is also provided. It is anticipated that technical advancement can be a driving force for the development of mechanobiology.

Directed assembly of genetically engineered eukaryotic cells into living functional materials via ultrahigh-affinity protein interactions

“…Optical tweezers are powerful, yet noninvasive tools for manipulating living cells ( 25 ). Their exquisite capabilities in force measurement also make it possible to quantitatively analyze intercellular interactions ( 26 , 27 ), so as to distinguish the engineered interactions (i.e., SpyTag/SpyCatcher or Im7/CL7) from the innate ones mediated by the natural glycoproteins such as flocculins. Figure 4A illustrates the way that we trapped a yeast cell in the microfluidic laminar flow chamber using a 1064-nm laser beam.…”

The role of cellular traction forces in deciphering nuclear mechanics

“…Other experimental techniques, such as micropillarand embedded sensor-based techniques, have been used by many researchers [60,135]. Of these techniques, however, TFM remains the most widely used technique for measuring cell traction forces for its versatile applications [136,137].…”

“…The common mechanical modes of forces are stretching, compressive, and shear forces as well as forces derived from surface tension continuously experienced by cells in vivo [60,61]. The stress and strain experienced by cells on hydrogel surfaces are important for studying cell dynamics.…”

COF-Based Electrodes with Vertically Supported Tentacle Array for Ultrahigh Stability Flexible Energy Storage

“…9 It is necessary to integrate organic small molecules into polymers for the formation of stable electrochemically active electrode materials. 10,11 The covalent organic framework (COF) as a well-defined crystalline porous polymer can periodically connect building blocks into layered structures via strong covalent bonds. 12 Compared with crystal porous material (MOF) having network structure, COFs exhibit superior chemical stability.…”

“…However, the high solubility will lead to the shuttling between the anode and cathode and rapid capacity decay of active materials . It is necessary to integrate organic small molecules into polymers for the formation of stable electrochemically active electrode materials. , …”