BIONOMICS OF THE FACE FLY, MUSCA AUTUMNALIS

Abstract

The face fly was introduced from the Palearctic region and spread across North America in 20 years after World War II. Adults feed on cattle and horses, and larvae develop in fresh cattle dung. Little genetic differentiation appears between European and North American populations and among regions within North America. After an autumnally initiated diapause, overwintered flies emerge in spring and reproduce through late spring and summer. Generations after the first overlap, and age structure develops toward a stable age distribution. After three to ten generations, depending on weather, facultative diapause interrupts host feeding and oogenesis, and flies with hypertrophied fat body enter overwintering hibernaculae. Life table statistics and factors affecting population growth and diapause are reviewed. Early views on the fly's effects on animal productivity may have been exaggerated. On-farm control by conventional means has not been effective because of the fly's population dynamics and mobility. We suggest that the alternatives of classical biological control and area-wide control with the sterile insect technique should be considered.

Genetic and environmental factors associated with incidence of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis in preweaned beef calves1

“…The expected mean life span of M. autumnalis is 10 d (Krafsur, 1995). As the year progresses, generations overlap with a seasonal maximal density typically observed in early to mid-summer (June to early August in Missouri, Thomas and Puttler, 1970; June through August in North Dakota, Peterson and Meyer, 1982; and June to July in Iowa, Krafsur and Moon, 1997). As infestation of the face fly increases during the summer, there is a related increase in the frequency of IBK (Cheng, 1967).…”

“…The female deposits her eggs exclusively in manure pats. The length of time for the egg to develop into an adult is temperature-dependent, but it averages approximately 14 d (Krafsur and Moon, 1997). The expected mean life span of M. autumnalis is 10 d (Krafsur, 1995).…”

“…Feeding flies often irritate the host's eye with their sharp prestomal spines, which cause superficial lesions and increased secretion of tears. The face fly carries M. bovis by retaining the bacteria in its crop and by regurgitating viable bacteria onto the feeding substrates (Krafsur and Moon, 1997). Therefore, prevention and control methods for IBK commonly include application of pesticides to decrease the number of flies.…”

Biological Control of Parasites

“…Steinemema carpocapsae (see Figure 1) has demonstrated effectiveness in the control of mosquitoes [49]. The host-specific entomoparasitic nematode, Heterlylenchus autumnalis, has been observed to parasitize Musca autumnalis, resulting in sterile female flies as nematode development occurs at the expense of egg production [94]. Entomopathogenic nematodes have been used commercially against insects during the last decades [95].…”

Morphology of immature stages ofAtherigona reversura(Diptera: Muscidae), with notes on the recent invasion of North America

“…Accidental introduction is well documented for some species of Muscidae, both those of concern as a pest, like Musca autumnalis De Geer (Krafsur and Moon 1997), and those used as biocontrol agents of greenhouse insect pests, like Coenosia attenuata Stein (Couri and Salas 2010). The first report of A. reversura in North America in July 2010 resulted from extensive damage in Bermudagrass pastures in southern Georgia (Hudson 2010).…”