Biomineralization in Three-Dimensional Scaffolds Based on Bacterial Nanocellulose for Bone Tissue Engineering: Feature Characterization and Stem Cell Differentiation

Abstract

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has a negative surface charge in physiological environments, which allows the adsorption of calcium ions to initiate the nucleation of different calcium phosphate phases. The aim of this study was to investigate different methods of mineralization in three-dimensional microporous bacterial nanocellulose with the intention of mimicking the composition, structure, and biomechanical properties of natural bone. To generate the 3D microporous biomaterial, porogen particles were incorporated during BNC fermentation with the Komagataeibacter medellinensis strain. Calcium phosphates (CPs) were deposited onto the BNC scaffolds in five immersion cycles, alternating between calcium and phosphate salts in their insoluble forms. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the scaffolds had different pore sizes (between 70 and 350 µm), and their porous interconnectivity was affected by the biomineralization method and time. The crystals on the BNC surface were shown to be rod-shaped, with a calcium phosphate ratio similar to that of immature bone, increasing from 1.13 to 1.6 with increasing cycle numbers. These crystals also increased in size with an increasing number of cycles, going from 25.12 to 35.9 nm. The main mineral phase observed with X-ray diffraction was octacalcium dihydrogen hexakis phosphate (V) pentahydrate (OCP). In vitro studies showed good cellular adhesion and high cell viability (up to 95%) with all the scaffolds. The osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells on the scaffolds was evaluated using bone expression markers, including alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, and osteopontin. In conclusion, it is possible to prepare 3D BNC scaffolds with controlled microporosity that allow osteoblast adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation.

Three-Dimensional Printing of Graphene Oxide/Poly-L-Lactic Acid Scaffolds Using Fischer–Koch Modeling

“…Both GO and PLLA have been thoroughly investigated for biocompatibility [69][70][71][72]. As expected, our results indicated optimal adhesion of gMSCs to the trabeculae of the different composites, presenting a long shape similar to that of fibroblasts, as described in previous studies [73,74]. During cell seeding, the filament arrangement did not influence the effectiveness of the cell culture.…”

Preparation of PLGA-PEG/Hydroxyapatite Composites via Simple Methodology of Film Formation and Assessment of Their Structural, Thermal, and Biological Features

“…In addition, the mass loss in the PLGA-PEG/HAP sample was higher than in the HAP sample and lower than in the PLGA-PEG sample. Thus, it may be said that the thermal stability of the PLGA-PEG polymer system with the addition of HAP increases (46,47).…”

Effect of Quorum Sensing Molecules on the Quality of Bacterial Nanocellulose Materials

“…BNC films often demonstrate a higher strength and flexibility than plant-based ones . BNC can also be easily modified and functionalized through genetic engineering and/or synthetic biology approaches. − BNC materials are applied in tissue engineering applications such as regenerative medicine, where biomimetics are used as a strategy to develop scaffolds that resemble native tissues and activate self-cell regeneration. , BNC materials have excellent biocompatibility that suit them for biomedical applications such as antimicrobial treatment, wound healing, , and blood vessel replacements . Moreover, the 3D-bioink printing field utilized BNC materials to form double cross-lined biomaterial films for medical field applications such as cell proliferation, cartilage regeneration, tissue repairs, and hemostatic applications .…”