Biomaterials: An Overview

Abstract

Biomaterials are materials of metallic, ceramic, polymeric, or composite origin that are used or that have been designed for use in medical devices or in contact with the body in order to augment, replace, or restore the function of diseased or damaged tissues or organs. Applications involving biomaterials range from load bearing orthopedic devices to degradable sutures to living skin equivalents. Although the types of materials used as biomaterials is diverse, most implanted biomaterials elicit a very similar inflammatory and foreign body response. In an attempt to minimize adverse biological responses and improve the performance of biomaterials at a tissue, cellular, and molecular level, current research in biomaterials has led to a paradigm change in which biomaterials consist of, mimic, or are designed to interact specifically with biological elements and systems. Continued adaptation of biomaterials design to biological responses will result in better performing devices that work with the body to promote tissue regeneration and healing.

Cryogels: Morphological, structural and adsorption characterisation

“…There are, at least, four different types of materials named "cryogels": (i) gelatinous precipitate forming during cryoprecipitationblood plasma treatment upon cooling to ca. 4°C [57]; (ii) frozen polymeric or other hydrogels used 14 as antipyretic materials or materials for thermal energy storage [58]; (iii) polymeric and inorganic cryogels produced using sol-gel technology with subsequent freeze-drying including individual and mixed inorganic oxides, polymers, hybrids, composites, and carbon cryogels (the latter is prepared by carbonisation of polymeric cryogels) [59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67] There are many cryogels prepared from synthetic polymers such as poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA, which was one of the first polymers used in cryogel preparation [2][3][4]36,38,74,78,82]. PVA alone or in combination with other polymers or proteins is very popular material for the cryogel preparation because its structure containing the (-CH 2 -C(OH)H-) n chain allows various degrees of cross-linking with the participation of the active COH groups, different cross-linkers and co-polymers.…”

“…The comparative structural and other characterisation of PVA and AC/PVA cryogels is described below using a variety of experimental and theoretical approaches. In this paper, which is mainly devoted to description of methods and approaches for morphological, structural and adsorption characterisation of cryogels, synthesis of cryogels is described only briefly, and the reader is referred to other review papers and books where the synthesis of cryogels is given in detail [2][3][4]36,38,74,78].…”

“…The structural characteristics of cryogels such as the pore volume, V, the specific surface area, S, the pore size distribution, PSD, the pore wall thickness distribution, PWTD, pore connectivity and tortuosity are of importance from the practical point of view [2][3][4]36,38,74,78]. A special interest is drawn to the detailed structure of pores and pore walls from nanoscale (0.4 < d nano < 100 nm) to microscale (0.1 < d micro < 100 m) and macroscale (d macro > 100 m).…”

“…More detailed structural characterisation of glycosaminoglycan-cross-linked collagen hydrogel INTEGRA TM was carried out using a combined CLSM-NMR-cryoporometry approach [106]. The whole hierarchy of the porous structure of this hydrogel is of interest because it is commonly used for wound healing, chiefly for burns and ulcers [125][126][127][128][129][130]. Additionally, analysis of interactions of proteins (bovine pancreatic tripsin inhibitor (BPTI), bovine serum albumin (BSA), and human serum fibrinogen (Fg)), normal primary human skin fibroblasts, and 3T3 mouse fibroblast cells with the collagen hydrogel was carried out using diffusional analysis, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) methods [106] (vide infra).…”

Sensitive Determination of Dopamine and Uric Acid by the Use of a Glassy Carbon Electrode Modified with Poly(3-methylthiophene)/Gold Nanoparticle Composites

“…Furthermore, conducting polymer incorporating metallic or semiconducting nanoparticles provide an exciting system, and these materials hold potential for applications in electronics, sensors and catalysis. [13][14][15] They have synergistic chemical and physical properties based on the constituent polymer and introduced metal. By tuning a polymer backbone with nanoscale material, realization of nano-electronic sensor devices with superior performance is possible.…”