Biomass-Derived Carbonaceous Materials with Graphene/Graphene-Like Structures: Definition, Classification, and Environmental Applications

Abstract

Biomass-derived carbonaceous materials with graphene/graphene-like structures (BGS) have attracted tremendous attention in the field of environmental remediation. The introduction of graphene/graphene-like structures into raw biochars can effectively improve their properties, such as electrical conductivity, surface functional groups, and catalytic activity. In 2021, the International Organization for Standardization defined graphene as a "single layer of carbon atoms with each atom bound to three neighbours in a honeycomb structure". Considering this definition, several studies have incorrectly referred to BGS (e.g., biomass-derived few-layer graphene or porous graphene-like nanosheets) as "graphene". The definitions and classifications of BGS and their applications in environmental remediation have not been assessed critically thus far. Comprehensive analysis and sufficient and robust evidence are highly desired to accurately determine the specific structures of BGS. In this perspective, we provide a systematic framework to define and classify the BGS. The state-of-the-art methods currently used to determine the structural properties of BGS are scrutinized. We then discuss the design and fabrication of BGS and how their distinctive features could improve the applicability of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials, particularly in environmental remediation. The environmental applications of these BGS are highlighted, and future research opportunities and needs are identified. The fundamental insights in this perspective provide critical guidance for the further development of BGS for a wide range of environmental applications.

Advances in the Sustainable Development of Biobased Materials Using Plant and Animal Waste as Raw Materials: A Review

“…The term refers to materials resulting from the manufacture of plant or animal biomass with potential uses in construction, fabric, or packaging [25][26][27][28][29]. When the primary component of the biobased material originates from biological waste, it significantly contributes to the sustainable economy by reducing dependence on non-renewable resources and promoting responsible waste management [30][31][32][33].…”