Biomarkers for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human excreta: recent advances in analytical techniques—a review

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread environmental pollutants that are generated by the incomplete combustion of organic materials. The main anthropogenic sources of PAHs are the combustion of solid fuels for heating purposes, illegal waste incineration, road transport and industries based on fossil fuels. PAHs can easily enter the body because they are present in all elements of the environment, including water, soil, air, and food. Due to their ubiquitous presence, PAHs, may exert a harmful effect on human health. Assessing PAH exposure through biomonitoring mostly involve techniques to measure the concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene in human urine. Nevertheless, through recent progress in analytical techniques, other common metabolites of PAHs in human biospecimens can be detected. A scientific literature search was conducted to determine which hydroxy derivatives of PAHs are markers of PAHs exposure and to reveal the leading sources of these compounds. Techniques for analyzing biological samples to identify OH-PAHs are also discussed. The most frequently determined OH-PAH in human urine is 1-hydroxypyrene, the concentration of which reaches up to a dozen ng/L in urine. Apart from this compound, the most frequently determined biomarkers were naphthalene and fluorene metabolites. The highest concentrations of 1- and 2-hydroxynaphthalene, as well as 2-hydroxyfluorene, are associated with occupational exposure and reach approximately 30 ng/L in urine. High molecular weight PAH metabolites have been identified in only a few studies. To date, PAH metabolites in feces have been analyzed only in animal models for PAH exposure. The most frequently used analytical method is HPLC-FLD. However, compared to liquid chromatography, the LOD for gas chromatography methods is at least one order of magnitude lower. The hydroxy derivatives naphthalene and fluorene may also serve as indicators of PAH exposure.

Urinary and Fecal Excretion of 121 Environmental Chemicals in Pet Dogs and Cats: Significance of Feces in Biomonitoring of Exposures

“…The metabolic disposition of naphthalene (parent compound of 2-Nap) in animals remains unknown. However, fecal excretion of pyrene (6.5–9.5%) was shown to be higher than urinary excretion (1.7–3.2%) in rats after intravenous administration …”

“…However, fecal excretion of pyrene (6.5−9.5%) was shown to be higher than urinary excretion (1.7−3.2%) in rats after intravenous administration. 43 3.1.3. Pesticides.…”

Urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites and their association with oxidative stress among pregnant women in Los Angeles

“…Urinary concentrations of hydroxylated metabolites of PAHs (OH-PAHs) have been widely used as biomarkers of PAH exposure, as they represent the integrated levels of exposure across multiple pathways in the hours or days prior to sampling [14]. Nevertheless, few studies up to date used urinary PAH biomarkers to examine the effect of PAH exposures on oxidative stress levels among pregnant women.…”