Biology and ecology of insect pests in macadamia: a review of the current status of IPM strategies in Australia

Abstract

Macadamia spp. are native to Australia and have significant commercial value worldwide for their edible nuts. Integrated pest management (IPM) can be challenging in Australia because macadamia is a native plant cultivated commercially in its native range alongside its native insect pests and their natural enemies. Attaining viable commercial yields of macadamia in Australia has historically relied heavily upon the use of chemical insecticides, including organophosphates, and a shift away from reliance on these practices has not yet happened. Amblypelta spp. have historically been the pests of greatest concern to the Australian macadamia industry and that has not changed, but the make-up of the other major and minor pests has changed over time. More recently, the more southern-growing regions have experienced increases in Cercotingis decoris, Proteatingis howardi, and Kuschelorhynchus macadamiae, and there are currently no long-term viable control options for these species. The Australian macadamia pests, Cryptophlebia ombrodelta and Acanthococcus ironsidei, not necessarily of major concern in Australia, have spread to macadamias in other countries and have become significant pests as they do not have the corresponding native natural enemies. There are critical gaps in the identification of macadamia pest species and their natural enemies, as well as an understanding of their biology and ecology, distribution, host preferences, and movement. The identified knowledge gaps need to be addressed to support IPM in macadamia, both in Australia and internationally.