Biocide Use in the Antimicrobial Era: A Review

Jones, Imogen Anne; Joshi, Lovleen Tina

doi:10.3390/molecules26082276

“…BCC and CHX, known as time and concentration- dependent biocides, are more effective against gram positive bacteria [ 21 22 ]. According to results, MIC of CHX in clinical isolates (16 – 128 µg/ml) was higher than reports from Turkey and Spain (6 - 64 µg/ml) and even higher than MIC against hospital acquired staphylococcal isolates from Iran (0.5 - 64 μg/mL) [ 15 16 23 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Reduced Susceptibility to Biocides among Enterococci from Clinical and Non-Clinical Sources

Sobhanipoor

¹

,

Ahmadrajabi

²

,

Hosseini-Nave

³

et al. 2021

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Background Wide use of biocidal agents such as benzalkonium chloride (BCC) and chlorhexidine digluconate (CHX) in hospitals and non-hospital environments, has raised concerns over the emergence of non-susceptible strains. Efflux pumps are of known main mechanisms in biocide tolerance which have been rarely addressed in enterococci - members of gut microbiota which can cause serious problems particularly in hospitalized patients. The purpose of this study was to investigate the susceptibility of enterococci from different sources (clinical and fecal isolates) toward BCC and CHX, and its correlation with efflux associated genes. Also, possible link between biocide tolerance and antibiotic resistance was examined. Materials and Methods One hundred and four enterococcus isolates including clinical (n = 54) and fecal isolates (n = 50) were studied for susceptibility toward BCC, CHX, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin and vancomycin. Twelve efflux associated genes were investigated by polymerase chain reaction assay. Results In clinical isolates, reduced susceptibility to CHX and resistance to gentamicin and ciprofloxacin were significantly higher than fecal isolates. Vancomycin resistance was associated with increasing minimum inhibitory concentration of CHX. Among all investigated genes, only three ones, efr A, efr B and eme A were detected which were significantly associated with reduced susceptibility to CHX and were more frequent among clinical isolates. Also, high level resistance to gentamicin was significantly associated with the presence of efr A/B as well as with reduced susceptibility to CHX. Conclusion As expected, reduced susceptibility to CHX, was significantly higher in clinical isolates. However, the presence of a vancomycin-resistant enterococci among fecal isolates of healthy people which showed resistance/tolerance to studied antimicrobial agents, was unexpected and highlights the need to investigate other non-hospital environments to avoid dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. Correlation between reduced susceptibility to CHX and high level resistance to gentamicin, substantiates monitoring of biocide tolerance particularly in the healthcare settings to control the establishment of antimicrobial resistant strains.

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“…For decades, biocides have been used in a wide range of applications, such as: water treatment, domestic environment, food preservation, healthcare sanitation, textile, and other industries to control and kill bacteria (Kahrilas et al, 2015;Jones and Joshi, 2021). Biocides are defined as substances with one or more active ingredients that are used to inactivate, prevent, or control any harmful microorganisms by chemical or biological ways (Ribeiro et al, 2018).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Multi-Purpose Approach to the Mechanisms of Action of Two Biocides (Benzalkonium Chloride and Dibromonitrilopropionamide): Discussion of Pseudomonas fluorescens’ Viability and Death

Barros

¹

,

Melo

²

,

Pereira

³

2022

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Biocides are widely used in water treatment for microbiological control. The rise of antimicrobial resistance and the need to assure properly managed water systems require a better understanding of the mechanisms of action of biocides and of their impact on cell’s viability as a function of dosage concentrations. The present work addresses these two aspects regarding the biocides benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and dibromonitrilopropionamide (DBNPA)—two biocides commonly found in the water treatment industry. For that, the following parameters were studied: culturability, membrane integrity, metabolic activity, cellular energy, and the structure and morphology of cells. Also, to assess cell’s death, a reliable positive control, consisting of cells killed by autoclave (dead cells), was introduced. The results confirmed that BAC is a lytic biocide and DBNPA a moderate electrophilic one. Furthermore, the comparison between cells exposed to the biocides’ minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) and autoclaved cells revealed that other viability parameters should be taken into consideration as “death indicators.” The present work also shows that only for the concentrations above the MBC the viability indicators reached values statistically similar to the ones observed for the autoclaved cells (considered to be definitively dead). Finally, the importance of considering the biocide mechanism of action in the definition of the viability parameter to use in the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) determination is discussed.

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“…HOCl is an attractive material for the nonsynthetic microbial toxic medium. Impurity-free HOCl originated from the products of the human immune response [ 10 ]. Across the oxidative reaction, highly activated molecules such as HOCl are stimulated from the leukocyte's action to external microorganisms [ 11 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hypochlorous Acid Can Be the Novel Option for the Meibomian Gland Dysfunction Dry Eye through Ultrasonic Atomization

Li

¹

,

Wang

²

,

Mo

³

et al. 2022

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Background. Dry eye is a multifactor disease which needs comprehensive treatments to keep the homeostasis of ocular surface. Objective. To explore the effect of hypochlorous acid on the meibomian gland dysfunction dry eye through ultrasonic atomization. Methods. We set this study of 0.01% HOCL and 0.1% hyaluronate by ultrasonic atomization. All the data was recorded at the 1st, 15th, 30th, and 55th days. The patients’ complains, the meibum analysis, conjunctive congestion, corneal staining, Schirmer’s I test, and NIBUT were recorded by K5M, the MMP-9, and IL-2 of tear by inflammation kit; the Demodex was recorded by microscopy. Results. 53 patients have joined this study. There is no statistic difference between them on OSDI (day 15: p = 0.061 , 30: p = 0.055 , 55: p = 0.052 ); results show the 10.57 ± 0.13 and 12.54 ± 0.17 reduction on OSDI; the differences of both treatments are significant ( ∗ ∗ p < 0.01 ). Increased Schirmer’s and TBUT are 3.27 ± 0.10 and 6.29 ± 0.10 ( ∗ ∗ p < 0.01 ) or 7.32 ± 1.72 s and 9.22 ± 1.41 s ( ∗ p < 0.05 ); the decreased conjunctive and corneal staining are 0.23 ± 0.07 and 0.45 ± 0.06 ( ∗ ∗ p < 0.01 ) or 0.42 ± 0.03 and 0.37 ± 0.02 ( ∗ p < 0.05 ) at both groups. The differences of MMP-9 and IL-2 negative rate are significant ( Z = 0.896 , ∗ ∗ p = 0.002 < 0.01 ; Z = 0.659 , ∗ ∗ p = 0.001 < 0.01 ); the number of Demodex mites at first is 10 or 11, while the last is 2 or 6 ( Z = − 4.642 , ∗ ∗ p < 0.01 ; Z = 2.742 , p > 0.05 ). The Demodex count between them is significant ( Z = − 2.310 , ∗ p = 0.032 < 0.05 ). The survival times (ST) of each stage at the HOCL are 110.75 ( 108.50 ± 24.50 ), 95.50 ( 90.25 ± 14.50 ), and 75.25 ( 73.48 ± 8.50 ) min which are shorter than those of control which are 155.50 ( 160.10 ± 21.50 ), 130.25 ( 128.25 ± 16.50 ), and 105.75 ( 102.50 ± 14.50 ) min ( ∗ ∗ p < 0.01 ). The Demodex eradication rate of HOCL is statistic significant ( ∗ p 15th vs. 1st day = 0.028 < 0.05 ; ∗ ∗ p 30th vs. 1st day = 0.002 < 0.01 ; ∗ ∗ p 55th vs. 1st day = 0.0018 < 0.01 ). Conclusions. 0.01% HOCL improves the Demodex eradication by shortening the survival time; the HOCL acts on the ocular surface by reducing the inflammation. The ultrasonic atomization helps for the drug usage.

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Biocide Use in the Antimicrobial Era: A Review

Cited by 110 publications

References 55 publications

Reduced Susceptibility to Biocides among Enterococci from Clinical and Non-Clinical Sources

Reduced Susceptibility to Biocides among Enterococci from Clinical and Non-Clinical Sources

A Multi-Purpose Approach to the Mechanisms of Action of Two Biocides (Benzalkonium Chloride and Dibromonitrilopropionamide): Discussion of Pseudomonas fluorescens’ Viability and Death

Hypochlorous Acid Can Be the Novel Option for the Meibomian Gland Dysfunction Dry Eye through Ultrasonic Atomization

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