Beyond knobs and dials: toward an intentional model of man-machine interaction

Abstract

This study investigates several critical cognitive diriieiisions which limit human decision-making in react,ivr rnvironmcnts such as air-to-air combat. Future air batt,les will challenge pilots' abilities to cope with sophisticated, numerically superior adversaries. Aircrews will have to perform critical tasks while meeting (.lie dernands of a rapidly evolving and uncertain tactical situation. Human cognitive processes are limited Iy processing bandwidth, d a t a fidelity, and situationdependent stresses. Rigidly structured human-machine interfaces may diminish aircrew performance because thry do not account for individual differences in cognit.ive approach. Automation and new concepts in display design are not the answer. "Knobs and dials" and black boxes only add to the confusion. But, results from Hunian Factors and Cognitive Psychology suggest a solution: intelligent intent-driven systems whose response chnrncteristics match knowledge-based schemata compatible with pilots' mental models of their tasks. The ProblemAir-to-a.ir combat places enormous responsibility on the pilot. Pilots must navigate, identify targets, select weapons, determine attack strategy, deliver the weapon (while maneuvering the aircraft), operate defensive systems, maintain communication, and monitor instruments. This requirement exceeds the bounds of effectual human performance.IJrriiian performance deteriorates in fast-moving situations which put increasing demands on cognitive resources. The processing resources of any system are finite. Thus, the human cognitive system reaches a performance plateau, beyond which unaided achievement i s either unacceptable or impossible.Scant knowledge of basic thought and action processes impedes understanding of the characteristics and 1imif.s of human cognition, although the Human Factors and Psychology literature contains much speculation and debate on the subject. Even identifying the principal cognitive mechanisms is no simple task.However, experimental evidence and theoretical models show that human response to complex circumstances depends largely on situational awareness, which in turn, depends on a n individual's mental models of the environment. Thus, a way of simplifying either the sibuation or the perception of the situation is needed to enhance performance in dynamic environments. Fallible Human DecisionsThe information processing model of human cognition is one of the most powerful metaphors used to propose and explain theories in Psychology and Human Factors Research [45]. This model suggests that a series of discrete processing steps occurs between stimrili and response. However, correct responses require that stimuli be relevant t o and consistent with a desired outcome. At the most abstract levels of human cognitive processing, stimuli may be thought of in terms of how they affect situation awareness.Situation awareness can be defined as knowledge of environment-reIated factors which influence response decisions. Inadequate situation awareness could cause disastrous consequences. Si...

Effects of Automation on Aircrew Workload and Situation Awareness in Tactical Airlift Missions

“…Simply adding automation or new display technologies is not a panacea for human-machine interaction, particularly if that interaction is too rigid (Secarea, 1990).…”

“…While it is possible to present pilots with more data, information overload is a significant concern in modern cockpits (Hart & Sheridan, 1984;Secarea, 1990). Poorly designed and integrated interfaces increase the workload and time needed to synthesize information and open opportunities for larger errors and confusion (Secarea, 1990).…”

“…Poorly designed and integrated interfaces increase the workload and time needed to synthesize information and open opportunities for larger errors and confusion (Secarea, 1990). Conversely, a smartly designed glass cockpit improvement can reduce workload by simplifying steps required to manipulate instrumentation.…”

“…While the term conjures thoughts of sophisticated computers, other everyday machines-ATMs, smoke detectors, elevators, automobile starter motors-are all examples of automation because they replace a function that a human once performed or could perform adequately (Parasuraman & Riley, 1997). As such, there exists a continuum of automation that provides the human operator with varying levels of control (Hart & Sheridan, 1984;Secarea, 1990). At the lowest end (no automation) is complete manual decision making and control by the human operator.…”

Analysis of delays in networked flight simulators

“…Practically this assumption means that in the development of human performance modeling, one must provide the human operator an internal model of the system and its environment [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. For more about human performance modeling and its role as an information processor or adaptive controller in man-machine systems, one may refer to [23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36].…”