Behavioral Cardiovascular Risk Factors　– Effect of Physical Activity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Cardiovascular Outcomes –

Abstract

34SPENCER RM et al. Circulation JournalOfficial Journal of the Japanese Circulation Society http://www. j-circ.or.jp CVD and stroke by 20%." 4 The committee was tasked with defining cardiovascular health, a concept that encompasses the presence of 7 ideal health behaviors and factors, including physical activity level. Thus, the AHA claims that cardiorespiratory fitness is an uncertain risk factor, but physical activity at goal levels is an ideal health behavior. This review aims to distinguish physical activity from physical fitness, more specifically cardiorespiratory fitness, as well as to address the question whether physical inactivity and cardiorespiratory fitness are independent risk factors for CVD. Definition of TermsAlthough physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness are closely related, they are distinct and require unique assessment methods. Physical activity is defined as "any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure." 5 Physical activity is measured via criterion methods, objective methods, and subjective methods. 6 Criterion methods include doubly labeled water, indirect calorimetry, and the gold standard, direct calorimetry. Doubly labeled water measures metabolic rate and requires ingesting 2 isotopes of water and assessing the difference in elimination rates of the isotopes over a certain time period. 6 Indirect calorimetry uses oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide elimination to indirectly estimate energy expenditure, while direct calorimetry measures energy expenditure through heat production. 6 Objective methods of physical activity include pedometers, accelerometers, espite major improvements in its treatment, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death worldwide. 1,2 In 2012, 17.5 million people died of CVD and this figure is expected to grow to 23.6 million by 2030. 2 Thus, understanding risk factors is integral to the prevention of CVD-related morbidity and mortality. Preserving cardiovascular health and treating modifiable risk factors instead of advanced disease benefits the long-term health of patients. Models for risk prediction have evolved since cardiovascular epidemiology began in the 1930 s. Various 5-and 10-year risk prediction models have been widely adopted, and include common variables such as age, sex, cholesterol, smoking status, diabetes, and systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SBP, DBP). However, despite abundant research focused on understanding the effect of physical activity and fitness on cardiovascular outcomes, these risk models do not include physical activity or fitness. In 2013, the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) Work Group examined the contribution of potential risk markers, including cardiorespiratory fitness, to risk assessment or reclassification when added to traditional variables. 3 At that time, they concluded that the evidence for contribution of cardiorespiratory fitness to risk assessment for a first atherosclerotic CVD event was inconclusive. 3 Wh...

Sympathetic neural activity, metabolic parameters and cardiorespiratory fitness in obese youths

“…In addition to the evaluation of traditional parameters, the effort test, CRF, has been added and assessed by oxygen consumption, (VO2peak. In the evaluation of overweight/obese children and adolescents the assessment of CRF is regularly not included, even though the information gained can be relevant when categorizing the risk of obese subjects [10]. The effort test was performed using a modified Balke protocol suited for children and adolescents in which the speed and the inclination profile were modified.…”

“…In a recent study [9], with 611 obese youths, 39%, 16.5% and 2.8% of this population presented 1, 2 or 3 risk factors, respectively, with hyperinsulinemia being the most prevalent, followed by lipid abnormalities and high BP. Moreover, obesity is inversely related to cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and when expressed by oxygen consumption during the effort test (VO2peak), it is a marker of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [10].…”

Finances of the citizens of the Czech Republic spent on sports activities to prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases

“…In 1992, the American Heart Association recognized physical inactivity as a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. The results of the meta-analyses (Spencer et al, 2016) from 1995 to 2007 recommend being mildly physically active for 150 minutes per week or intensively active for 75 minutes (at least 10 minutes per day). The meta-analysis published by Sattelmair et al (2011) shows that physical activity helps to decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases (a larger association among women than men).…”

A Novel Digital Platform for a Monitored Home-based Cardiac Rehabilitation Program

“…Regular exercise is an important method to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease 1,2,3,4,5,6 . Exercise lowers the risk of progression of vascular disease and significantly lowers the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality 7,8,9,10 .…”