Behavior, appetite, and urinary cortisol responses by adult female pigtailed macaques to cage size, cage level, room change, and ketamine sedation

Wildlife conservation and animal temperament: causes and consequences of evolutionary change for captive, reintroduced, and wild populations

“…Due to new selective pressures, the genetic and phenotypic characteristics of captive stocks can diverge from those of their population of origin. Since individuals respond differently to the stress of captivity (Arnold, 1995;Carlstead, 1996;Crockett, Shimoji & Bowden, 2000), temperament traits may play a key role in determining the effects of selection.…”

“…Nevertheless, stress is a major barrier to captive reproductive success (van Heezik & Seddon, 2001), and not all individuals respond to the stress of captivity in the same way (Arnold, 1995;Carlstead, 1996;Crockett et al, 2000). Stress may result Animal Conservation 9 (2006) 39-48 c…”

Enrichment and aggression in primates

“…Neither stress (Crockett et al, 1993a,b;Crockett et al, 2000;Reinhardt, 1991;Schapiro et al, 1993a) nor autonomic response (Line et al, 1989a;1990a) are heightened in animals in small cages suggesting that size is not a special source of stress, but there are indications of behavioural benefits through the promotion of natural behaviour as a measurable indicator of psychological well-being. Care needs to be taken in interpreting the results of some studies (e.g.…”

“…Under conditions of restricted space higher levels of aggression and stereotypic behaviour have been reported compared with larger caging, zoo or free-ranging conditions (Faucheux et al, 1978;Howell et al, 1993;Kitchen and Martin, 1996). Restricted space has also been demonstrated to result in a significant decrease in locomotion (including stereotypic) levels in long-tailed (Macaca fascicularis) and pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) (Crockett et al, 1995(Crockett et al, , 2000, but it should be noted that the smallest (0.08 m 2 !0.43 m) cages used in these studies, at just 20% of the USDA regulation floor area, were too small to allow any natural locomotion. When cage size and complexity are increased, general levels of activity also increase (Kerl and Rothe, 1996;Kitchen and Martin, 1996) and levels of maternal aggressive punishment of infants are lower but more successful in redirecting the infant's behaviour (Ruppenthal and Sackett, 1979).…”

Ecotourism disturbances to non-human primates

“…非人灵长类观赏旅游，不仅能够提高公众的自 然保护意识 (Newsome et al, 2005;Fennell, 2008)，获 得稳定的资金以促进保护区和国家公园的基础设 施建设及物种保护，同时也可以提供给当地居民更 多的就业机会，最终促进社区经济发展 (Horwich, 1990;Brandon, 1996;Horwich, 1998;Zinner et al, 1998;Xiang et al, 2011)。然而，与游客的长期接触 将不可避免地给动物带来一些负面影响。一般来 说，对动物行为格局 (Zhao, 1991;Treves & Brandon, 2005;Hsu et al, 2009;Maréchal et al, 2011)、生理状 态 (Behie et al, 2010;Maréchal et al, 2011)以及人兽 共患疾病传播 (Wallis & Lee 1999;Vié 1999;Lafferty et al, 2002)等方面的干扰将影响种群健康和繁殖以 及种群结构和数量等 (Jiang et al，1994;Takahata et al, 1998;Torre et al, 2000;Berman et al, 2007) (Francis et al, 1987;Sapolsky, 1993;Elder, 2001;Cross et al, 2004;Maréchal et al, 2011)，其粪便皮质醇浓度已被 广泛应用于个体急、慢性压力研究 (Sapolsky, 1993;Crockett, 2000;Cross et al, 2004;Barbosa & Mota, 2009;Maréchal et al, 2011) …”