Battery Technologies for Large-Scale Stationary Energy Storage

Abstract

In recent years, with the deployment of renewable energy sources, advances in electrified transportation, and development in smart grids, the markets for large-scale stationary energy storage have grown rapidly. Electrochemical energy storage methods are strong candidate solutions due to their high energy density, flexibility, and scalability. This review provides an overview of mature and emerging technologies for secondary and redox flow batteries. New developments in the chemistry of secondary and flow batteries as well as regenerative fuel cells are also considered. Advantages and disadvantages of current and prospective electrochemical energy storage options are discussed. The most promising technologies in the short term are high-temperature sodium batteries with β″-alumina electrolyte, lithium-ion batteries, and flow batteries. Regenerative fuel cells and lithium metal batteries with high energy density require further research to become practical.

Copper hexacyanoferrate battery electrodes with long cycle life and high power

“…Traditional bulk syntheses of Prussian Blue relied on the addition of an aqueous metal salt solution such as FeCl 3 to an aqueous solution of K 4 Fe(CN) 6 (refs 11,15). During the addition of one precursor to the other, the relative concentrations of the reactants varied, resulting in inconsistent conditions for the nucleation and growth of solid nanoprecipitates.…”

“…R ecent research and commercial development of batteries has primarily targeted electrode material systems for use in portable electronics and vehicles 1,2 , with less attention paid to large-scale batteries for the energy grid 3,4 . Large-scale stationary energy storage is necessary to address the challenges of frequency regulation and short-term transients that currently cost the utility industry nearly US $ 100 billion annually 5 .…”

“…Grid-scale energy storage methods, such as pumped-hydropower and compressed air, are location-dependent and suff er from relatively low energy effi ciency 3,4,6 . Current well-developed battery technology cannot meet the durability, high-power operation, round-trip energy effi ciency, and / or cost requirements for widespread use in the grid.…”

“…Current well-developed battery technology cannot meet the durability, high-power operation, round-trip energy effi ciency, and / or cost requirements for widespread use in the grid. Lead-acid batteries have a short cycle life, even at a limited depth of discharge, while other existing systems such as sodium / sulphur and lithium-ion cells are much too expensive, as are the metal hydride / nickel cells currently used in hybrid automobiles 3,4,6 . Redox fl ow batteries, the Na / NiCl 2 ' Zebra ' battery, and various modifi cations of the conventional lead-acid system cannot operate at suffi ciently high rates 3,4,6 .…”

“…Redox fl ow batteries, the Na / NiCl 2 ' Zebra ' battery, and various modifi cations of the conventional lead-acid system cannot operate at suffi ciently high rates 3,4,6 . Study of other systems, such as hightemperature liquid metal batteries 3 , has only just begun.…”