Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans not detected in U.S. survey of pet salamanders

Klocke, Blake; Becker, Matthew H.; Lewis, James P.; Fleischer, Robert C.; Muletz‐Wolz, Carly R.; Rockwood, Larry L.; Aguirre, A. Alonso; Gratwicke, Brian

doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13500-2

Cited by 35 publications

(28 citation statements)

References 22 publications

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“…At first glance, this overall low prevalence may suggest a low probability of entry in naïve regions such as the United States; indeed, our estimates are broadly consistent with the low levels of true prevalence (<1%) estimated for captive collections in the United States by Klocke et al. (), where Bsal was not detected. However, both the high prevalence in Hongkong newts ( P. hongkongensis ; which was not included in the survey by Klocke et al., ) and the mere presence in Chinese fire bellied newts ( C. orientalis ) are especially worrying, given the large‐scale exploitation of these species for the international animal trade.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 91%

“…Low prevalence of Bsal may explain whyZhu et al (2014) failed to detect it in China, given the limited sample size in their study. At first glance, this overall low prevalence may suggest a low probability of entry in naïve regions such as the United States; indeed, our estimates are broadly consistent with the low levels of true prevalence (<1%) estimated for captive collections in the United States byKlocke et al (2017), where Bsal was not detected. However, both the high prevalence in Hongkong newts (P. hongkongensis; which was not included in the sur-Screening of Chinese salamanders for the presence of Bsal…”

supporting

confidence: 85%

“…(), where Bsal was not detected. However, both the high prevalence in Hongkong newts ( P. hongkongensis ; which was not included in the survey by Klocke et al., ) and the mere presence in Chinese fire bellied newts ( C. orientalis ) are especially worrying, given the large‐scale exploitation of these species for the international animal trade. Supposing a stable Bsal prevalence of 3% throughout the commercial chain, this would imply that at least an estimated 66,000 Bsal positive newts have reached the United States in the past decade.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Widespread occurrence of an emerging fungal pathogen in heavily traded Chinese urodelan species

Yuan

Martel

et al. 2018

CONSERVATION LETTERS

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Understanding introduction routes for wildlife pathogens is vital for the development of threat abatement plans. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) has recently emerged in Europe, where it is considered to be a serious threat for urodelan conservation. If the highly diverse Chinese urodelans were to constitute a Bsal reservoir, then the significant international trade in these species may vector Bsal into naïve urodelan communities. Here, we analyzed a total of 1,143 samples, representing 36 Chinese salamander species from 51 localities across southern China for the presence of Bsal. We found Bsal was present across a wide taxonomic, geographical, and environmental range. In particular, Bsal DNA was detected in 33 samples from the genera Cynops, Pachytriton, Paramesotriton, Tylototriton, and Andrias, including the heavily traded species Paramesotriton hongkongensis and Cynops orientalis. The true Bsal prevalence across our data set was estimated between 2% and 4%, with a maximum of 50% in a population of P. hongkongensis. Even at this overall relatively low Bsal prevalence, the exportation of millions of animals renders Bsal introduction in naïve, importing countries a near certainty, which calls for the urgent implementation of proper biosecurity in the international wildlife trade.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 91%

supporting

confidence: 85%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Widespread occurrence of an emerging fungal pathogen in heavily traded Chinese urodelan species

Yuan

Martel

et al. 2018

CONSERVATION LETTERS

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“…The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service implemented a ban on trade of 201 salamander species due to the risk of Bsal invasion 67 . Although this action likely reduced number of Bsal-infected salamanders entering the United States via international trade, it did not eliminate the threat.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Host density and habitat structure influence host contact rates and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans transmission

Malagon

Melara

Prosper

et al. 2020

Sci Rep

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Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is an emerging invasive pathogen that is highly pathogenic to salamander species. Modeling infection dynamics in this system can facilitate proactive efforts to mitigate this pathogen's impact on north American species. Given its widespread distribution and high abundance, the eastern newt (Notophthalmus viridescens) has the potential to significantly influence Bsal epidemiology. We designed experiments to 1) estimate contact rates given different host densities and habitat structure and 2) estimate the probability of transmission from infected to susceptible individuals. Using parameter estimates from data generated during these experiments, we modeled infection and disease outcomes for a population of newts using a system of differential equations. We found that host contact rates were density-dependent, and that adding habitat structure reduced contacts. the probability of Bsal transmission given contact between newts was very high (>90%) even at early stages of infection. our simulations show rapid transmission of Bsal among individuals following pathogen introduction, with infection prevalence exceeding 90% within one month and >80% mortality of newts in three months. Estimates of basic reproductive rate (R 0) of Bsal for eastern newts were 1.9 and 3.2 for complex and simple habitats, respectively. Although reducing host density and increasing habitat complexity might decrease transmission, these management strategies may be ineffective at stopping Bsal invasion in eastern newt populations due to this species' hypersusceptibility. Across a variety of taxa, disease has been implicated as a major contributor to population-and species-level declines 1-6. Epidemiological modeling can facilitate disease response and management by elucidating host-pathogen interactions and identifying strategies that could reduce the severity of outbreaks in wild populations 7-9. Ideally, evaluating disease management strategies and modeling possible outcomes should occur prior to pathogen invasion, because the likelihood for disease control is greater and the cost of response is less 8,10-12. Conversely, reactive or delayed responses to disease outbreaks can result in significant biodiversity loss and economic impact, as demonstrated by the unexpected emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatids (Bd) 6,13,14 and Pseudogymnoascus destructans (the causative agent of White Nose syndrome) 13,15. The newly emergent fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) provides a unique opportunity to evaluate possible management strategies, especially in areas where it has yet to emerge. Bsal is rapidly spreading in Europe, where it is believed to have been introduced from Asia via the pet trade 16,17. In areas where Bsal has emerged, populations of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) have declined substantially 18. Preventing and mitigating Bsal outbreaks is described as one of the greatest current priorities for wildlife conservation 19. Bsal appears to have a high invasion probability ...

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“…In addition, this pathogen appears to be more pathogenic to salamanders as opposed to frogs (26). Although Bsal has not been found in North America to date (21,27), it is imperative to test salamanders with skin lesions to rule out a novel introduction.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of Severity and Factors Contributing to Foot Lesions in Endangered Ozark Hellbenders, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi

et al. 2020

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Arkansas populations of Ozark Hellbenders, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi have declined precipitously over the past few decades and are now limited to a single river. Biologists have also observed an increase of distal limb lesions with unidentified etiology and unknown role in morbidity and mortality of the species in this location. We documented lesions and collected associated individual size class data and pathogen samples in Ozark Hellbenders of Arkansas (n = 73) from 2011 to 2014 with the following two objectives: (1) document spatiotemporal patterns and severity of lesions present in this last remaining Arkansas Ozark Hellbender population, and (2) determine if host factors and infection status are associated with lesion severity. A scoring system was created from 0 to 7 based on lesion observations. Linear mixed model regressions followed by AICc model evaluation were used to determine associations among infection status for amphibian pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Ranavirus as well as individual biometrics on lesion score. We discovered 93.2% of Hellbenders had lesions characterized by digit swelling that often progressed toward toe-tip ulceration. In severe cases we observed digital necrosis progressing to digit loss. Any recaptured individuals had the same or worse lesion score from previous captures. The top predictive model for lesion severity included individual mass and Bd infection status with a significant, positive association of Bd with increased lesion severity (β = 0.87 ± 0.39 S.E., C.I.: 0.11, 1.63). Our findings highlight a widespread and progressive disease that is an important factor to consider for the future of Ozark Hellbenders. This syndrome is presumptively multifactorial, and future studies will benefit from investigating several factors of host, infectious agents, and environment and their roles in disease manifestation for the purpose of developing effective, multi-faceted conservation strategies. A summary of potential etiologies and mechanisms is provided that may explain observed lesion distribution and that will be applicable to future disease and epidemiological investigations.

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Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans not detected in U.S. survey of pet salamanders

Cited by 35 publications

References 22 publications

Widespread occurrence of an emerging fungal pathogen in heavily traded Chinese urodelan species

Widespread occurrence of an emerging fungal pathogen in heavily traded Chinese urodelan species

Host density and habitat structure influence host contact rates and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans transmission

Evaluation of Severity and Factors Contributing to Foot Lesions in Endangered Ozark Hellbenders, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi

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