“…Furthermore, such transferred, incomplete punishment initiated by (in many cases) developed Western states, exploits existing vulnerabilities of conflict-ridden states, and amplifies their dominated status. Gibney (2020) exposes the constraints of citizenship revocation in modern times caused by a lack of unoccupied territories, but this article nevertheless reveals the ways in which countries suffering from prolonged conflict which weakens their institutional framework and exposes them to non-state governance by militarized groups, effectively become the new terrae nullius for discarding undesirable citizens. Therefore, rather than depicting the appearance of global non-citizens as the inadvertent collateral consequence of enhanced global mobility, it is necessary to recognize the ways in which the (mostly) Western states consciously exploit existing pathways of dependencies of vulnerable states caused by their complex economic, political and institutional frailties.…”